STANDING ROCK SIOUX TRIBE, ET AL., APPELLEES v. UNITED STATES ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS, APPELLANT DAKOTA ACCESS LLC, INTERVENOR
No. 20-5197
United States Court of Appeals FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT
Decided January 26, 2021
Argued November 4, 2020
Consolidated with 20-5201
James A. Maysonett, Attorney, U.S. Department of Justice, argued the cause for appellant United States Army Corps of Engineers. With him on the briefs were Jeffrey Bossert Clark, Assistant Attorney General, Jonathan D. Brightbill, Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General, Eric A. Grant, Deputy
Miguel A. Estrada argued the cause for appellant Dakota Access LLC. With him on the briefs were William S. Scherman and David J. Debold.
Wayne K. Stenehjem, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of North Dakota, and Matthew A. Sagsveen, Solicitor General, were on the brief for amicus curiae the State of North Dakota.
Tim Fox, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Montana, Curtis T. Hill, Jr., Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Indiana, Thomas M. Fisher, Solicitor General, Tom Miller, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Iowa, Derek Schmidt, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Kansas, Daniel Cameron, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the Commonwealth of Kentucky, Jeff Landry, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Louisiana, Doug Peterson, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Nebraska, Dave Yost, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Ohio, Jason Ravnsborg, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of South Dakota, Patrick Morrisey, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of West Virginia, and Bridget Hall, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Wyoming, were on the brief for amici curiae the States of Indiana, Montana, and 9 other states in support of appellants.
David H. Coburn, Joshua H. Runyan, Richard S. Moskowitz, Tyler J. Kubik, Stephen J. Obermeier, Wesley E. Weeks, John P. Wagner, Steven M. Kramer, Steven P.
Jared R. Wigginton and Kent Mayo were on the brief for amici curiae North Dakota Farm Bureau, et al.
Christopher O. Murray was on the brief for amicus curiae for appellant North Dakota Water Users Association in support of appellants.
Jan Hasselman argued the cause for appellees Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, et al. With him on the brief were Patti A. Goldman, Nicole E. Ducheneaux, Jennifer S. Baker, Rollie E. Wilson, Jeffrey Rasmussen, Michael L. Roy, Jennifer P. Hughes, and Elliott A. Milhollin. Jeremy J. Patterson entered an appearance.
Joel West Williams was on the brief for amici curiae the Great Plains Tribal Chairmen‘s Association, et al. in support of appellees.
Maura Healey, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Seth G. Schofield, Senior Appellate Counsel, Xavier Becerra, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of California, Jamie B. Jefferson and Joshua R. Purtle, Deputy Attorneys General, Kathleen Jennings, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Delaware, Christian Douglas Wright, Director of Impact Litigation, Aaron M. Frey, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Maine, William Tong, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State of Connecticut, Clare Kindall, Solicitor General, Kwame Raoul, Attorney General, Office of the Attorney General for the State
Douglas P. Hayes was on the brief for amici curiae Sierra Club, et al. in support of appellees.
Kenneth Rumelt and James G. Murphy were on the brief for amicus curiae Members of Congress in support of appellees.
Mary Kathryn Nagle was on the brief for amicus curiae National Indigenous Women‘s Resource Center, Inc. in support of appellees.
Before: TATEL and MILLETT, Circuit Judges, and SENTELLE, Senior Circuit Judge.
Opinion for the Court filed by Circuit Judge TATEL.
TATEL, Circuit Judge: Lake Oahe, created when the United States Army Corps of Engineers flooded thousands of acres of Sioux lands in the Dakotas by constructing the Oahe Dam on the Missouri River, provides several successor tribes of the Great Sioux Nation with water for drinking, industry, and sacred cultural practices. Passing beneath Lake Oahe‘s waters, the Dakota Access Pipeline transports crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois. Under the Mineral Leasing Act,
I.
“In order to ‘create and maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony,’ the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA),
“Whether a project has significant environmental impacts, thus triggering the need to produce an EIS, depends on its ‘context’ (regional, locality) and ‘intensity’ (‘severity of impact‘).” National Parks, 916 F.3d at 1082 (quoting
The Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL), nearly 1,200 miles long, is designed to move more than half a million gallons of crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois each day. Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Standing Rock III), 255 F. Supp. 3d 101, 114 (D.D.C. 2017). DAPL crosses many waterways, including Lake Oahe, an artificial reservoir in the Missouri River created when the Corps constructed a dam in 1958. The dam‘s construction and Lake Oahe‘s creation flooded 56,000 acres of the Standing Rock Reservation and 104,420 acres of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe‘s trust lands. Id. The Tribes now rely on Lake Oahe‘s water for drinking, agriculture, industry, and sacred religious and medicinal practices. Id. As the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe explained:
Lake Oahe is the source of life for the Tribe. It provides drinking water for over 4,200 people on the Reservation. It is the source of water for irrigation and other economic pursuits central to the Tribal economy. And it provides the habitat for fish and wildlife on the Reservation upon which tribal members rely for subsistence, cultural, and recreational purposes. Moreover, the Tribe‘s traditions provide that water is more than just a resource, it is sacred—as water connects all of nature and sustains life.
Letter from Dave Archambault II, Chairman, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, to Lowry A. Crook, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Civil Works, Office of the Assistant Secretary for the Army, and Col. John Henderson, P.E., District Commander, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Omaha District (Mar. 24, 2016), Appendix (A.) 318.
Oil pipelines crossing federally regulated waters like Lake Oahe require federal approval. See Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 114. In June 2014, Dakota Access, formed to construct and own DAPL, notified the Corps that it intended to construct a portion of DAPL under Lake Oahe, just half a mile north of the Standing Rock Reservation. Id. To do so, Dakota Access needed, among other things, a real-estate easement from the Corps under the Mineral Leasing Act (MLA),
In December 2015, the Corps published and sought public comment on a Draft Environmental Assessment (EA) finding that the construction would have no significant environmental impact. Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 114–15. The Tribes submitted comments voicing a range of concerns. Relevant here, the Tribes contended that the Corps had insufficiently analyzed the risks and consequences of an oil spill.
Two federal agencies also raised concerns. The Department of the Interior requested that the Corps prepare an EIS given the pipeline‘s potential impact on trust resources, criticizing the Corps for “not adequately justify[ing] or otherwise support[ing] its conclusion that there would be no significant impacts upon the surrounding environment and community.” Letter from Lawrence S. Roberts, Acting Assistant Secretary—Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, to Brent Cossette, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District (Mar. 29, 2016), A. 385-86. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) registered its concern that the Draft EA “lack[ed] sufficient analysis of direct and indirect impacts to water resources,” though it requested additional information and mitigation in the EA rather than preparation of an EIS. Letter from Philip S. Strobel, Director, NEPA Compliance and Review Program Office of Ecosystems
On July 25, 2016, the Corps published its Final EA and a “Mitigated Finding of No Significant Impact” (Mitigated FONSI). The Mitigated FONSI explained that, given the Corps‘s adoption of various mitigation measures, including horizontal directional drilling, the Lake Oahe crossing would not “significantly affect the quality of the human environment” and that an EIS was therefore unnecessary.
Shortly after the Final EA‘s release, Standing Rock sued the Corps for declaratory and injunctive relief under NEPA (and several other federal laws not at issue in this appeal). Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 116–17. Dakota Access and the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe intervened on opposing sides, and Cheyenne River filed a separate complaint adding additional claims. Id. at 117. Though the district court denied the Tribes’ request for a preliminary injunction on September 9, 2016, the Departments of Justice, Interior, and the Army immediately issued a joint statement explaining that the Corps would not issue an MLA easement and that construction would not move forward until the Army could determine whether
Following that statement, Standing Rock submitted several letters to the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Civil Works, who oversees the portion of the Corps‘s mission that includes issuing permits for pipelines like DAPL. Those letters raised concerns about the EA‘s spill risk analysis. The tribe also submitted an expert review of the EA from an experienced pipeline consultant who concluded that the assessment was “seriously deficient and [could not] support the finding of no significant impact, even with the proposed mitigations.” Accufacts Review of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Assessment for the Dakota Access Pipeline (Oct. 28, 2016), A. 837–46. Following the Corps‘s internal review, the Assistant Secretary stood by her prior decision, but nonetheless concluded that the historical relationship between the affected tribes and the federal government “merit[ed] additional analysis, more rigorous exploration and evaluation of reasonable siting alternatives, and greater public and tribal participation and comments.” Memorandum from Jo-Ellen Darcy, Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) (Dec. 4, 2016), A. 260; see Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 117–18.
During the ensuing review, both Standing Rock and the Oglala Sioux Tribe submitted additional comments and analysis. The Corps solicited Interior‘s opinion on the pipeline, Interior‘s Solicitor responded with a recommendation that the Corps prepare an EIS, and the Secretary of the Army for Civil Works issued a memorandum directing the Army not to grant an easement prior to preparation of an EIS. See Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 118–19. On January 18, 2017, the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Civil Works published in the Federal Register a notice of intent to prepare an EIS. See
Two days later, a new administration took office, and the government‘s position changed significantly. In a January 24 memorandum, the President directed the Secretary of the Army to instruct the Corps and the Assistant Secretary for Civil Works to expedite DAPL approvals and consider whether to rescind or modify the Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS. Memorandum of January 24, 2017, Construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline, 82 Fed. Reg. 8,661 (Jan. 30, 2017). The Army in turn concluded that the record supported granting an easement and that no EIS or further supplementation was necessary.
The Corps granted the easement on February 8, 2017, and after the district court denied Cheyenne River‘s motion for a preliminary injunction and temporary restraining order, both the Tribes and the Corps moved for partial summary judgment on several claims. The district court concluded that the Corps‘s decision not to issue an EIS violated NEPA by failing to adequately consider three issues: whether the project‘s effects were likely to be “highly controversial,” the impact of a hypothetical oil spill on the Tribes’ fishing and hunting rights, and the environmental-justice effects of the project. Standing Rock III, 255 F. Supp. 3d at 111–12. It accordingly remanded the matter to the agency to address those three issues. Id. at 160-61.
After the Corps completed its remand analysis in February 2019, the parties again moved for summary judgment, with the Tribes arguing that the Corps failed to remedy its NEPA violations and pressing several other non-NEPA claims. Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
The Corps and Dakota Access now appeal the district court‘s order remanding for preparation of an EIS, as well as its separate order granting vacatur of the pipeline‘s MLA easement and ordering that the pipeline be shut down. While this appeal was pending, a motions panel denied the Corps‘s request to stay the vacatur of the easement but granted its request to stay the district court‘s order to the extent it enjoined the pipeline‘s use. Order, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, No. 20-5197, at 1 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 5, 2020) (August 5 Order).
II.
The Corps, together with Dakota Access, challenges the district court‘s conclusion that the effects of the Corps‘s easement decision were “likely to be highly controversial” under NEPA. A decision is “highly controversial,” we explained in National Parks Conservation Association v. Semonite, if a “substantial dispute exists as to the size, nature, or effect of the major federal action.” 916 F.3d at 1083 (internal quotation marks omitted). But not just any criticism renders the effects of agency action “highly controversial.” Rather, “something more is required for a highly controversial finding besides the fact that some people may be highly agitated and be willing to go to court over the matter.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).
In National Parks, we clarified what more is required. There, we considered the Corps‘s decision to forgo an EIS before approving a permit authorizing an electrical infrastructure project in a historically significant area. “[T]he Corps‘s assessment of the scope of the Project‘s effects ha[d] drawn consistent and strenuous opposition, often in the form of concrete objections to the Corps‘s analytical process and findings, from agencies entrusted with preserving historical resources and organizations with subject-matter expertise.” Id. at 1086. Because those criticisms reflected “the considered responses . . . of highly specialized governmental agencies and organizations” rather than “the hyperbolic cries of . . . not-in-my-backyard neighbors,” we found the effects of the Corps‘s decision “highly controversial.” Id. at 1085–86. “[R]epeated criticism from many agencies who serve as stewards of the exact resources at issue, not to mention consultants and organizations with on-point expertise, surely rises to more than mere passion.” Id. at 1085. And while the Corps “did acknowledge and try to address [those] concerns,” that was not enough to put the controversy to rest. Id. at 1085–86. “The question is not whether the Corps attempted to resolve the controversy, but whether it succeeded.” Id. Indeed, an EIS is perhaps especially warranted where an agency explanation confronts but fails to resolve serious outside criticism, leaving a project‘s effects uncertain. “Congress created the EIS process to provide robust information in situations . . . where, following
The Corps and Dakota Access advance two arguments: that, in relying on National Parks, the “district court applied the wrong legal standard,” Appellant‘s Br. 14, and that the Corps adequately addressed the four specific disputes on which the district court relied in finding the effects of the Corps‘s easement decision likely to be highly controversial. We disagree as to both.
The Corps offers two bases for distinguishing this case from National Parks. First, it argues that here, in contrast to in National Parks, “the Corps‘[s] efforts to respond to the Tribes’ criticisms were not ‘superficial.‘” Appellant‘s Br. 19. That distinction, however, rests on an inaccurate description of National Parks. Contrary to the Corps‘s claim that we deemed “superficial and inadequate” the Corps‘s response to criticisms, we pointedly explained that we took “no position on the adequacy of the Corps‘s alternatives analyses.” National Parks, 916 F.3d at 1088. Instead, we noted only that other agencies had expressed concerns about the superficiality and inadequacy of the Corps‘s efforts. Id. Furthermore, the Corps‘s position that a response to criticism suffices so long as it is not “superficial” is hard to square with our statement in National Parks that “[t]he question is not whether the Corps attempted to resolve the controversy, but whether it succeeded.” Id. at 1085-86. The decisive factor is not the volume of ink spilled in response to criticism, but whether the agency has, through the strength of its response, convinced the court that it has materially addressed and resolved serious objections to its analysis, a matter requiring us to delve into the details of the Tribes’ criticisms—to which we shall turn momentarily.
The Tribes’ unique role and their government-to-government relationship with the United States demand that their criticisms be treated with appropriate solicitude. Of course, as the Corps points out, the Tribes are not the federal government. But in National Parks, we emphasized the important role played by entities other than the federal government. There, criticism came from “highly specialized governmental agencies and organizations,” including the Virginia Department of Historic Resources and several conservation groups. National Parks, 916 F.3d at 1084–85; see
With the proper legal framework in mind, we turn to the four disputed facets of the Corps‘s analysis that the district court found involved unresolved scientific controversies for purposes of NEPA‘s “highly controversial” factor.
DAPL‘s Leak Detection System
The district court found that serious unresolved controversy existed concerning the effectiveness of DAPL‘s leak detection system. Specifically, it found that the 2012 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) study submitted with Standing Rock‘s expert report “indicated an 80% failure rate in the type of leak-detection system employed by DAPL.” Standing Rock V, 440 F. Supp. 3d at 18. The court went on to note that “the system was not even designed to detect leaks that constituted 1% or less of the pipe‘s flow rate,” which could amount to 6,000 barrels a day. Id. Because the Corps “failed entirely to respond to” those deficiencies, the court found that the Corps had not succeeded
On appeal, the Corps correctly points out that the 2012 PHMSA study does not reflect an 80% “failure rate.” Rather, the study indicates that in 80% of all incidents where it was in use and “functional,” the “computational pipeline monitoring” (CPM) system used by DAPL was not the first system to detect a leak. That the CPM system was commonly eclipsed by visual identification, however, casts serious, unaddressed doubt on the Corps‘s statement that the system will “detect the pressure drop from a pipeline rupture within seconds.” Appellant‘s Br. 21 (internal quotation marks omitted). As the PHMSA study explains, “CPM systems by themselves did not appear to respond more often than personnel . . . or members of the public passing by the release incident.” U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Final Report Leak Detection Study 2-11 (Dec. 10, 2012). The Corps has failed to address the apparent disconnect, suggested by the PHMSA study, between the CPM system‘s historic performance and the agency‘s representations about its future utility. Indeed, the Corps acknowledges that it “did not explicitly discuss the 2012 PHMSA report” in its review. Appellant‘s Br. 22. The consequences of that oversight are especially significant since DAPL is buried deep underground and visual identification is therefore unlikely to make up for deficiencies in the CPM system, as it apparently has in the incidents included in the PHMSA study.
Attempting to discount the significance of the Corps‘s failure to consider the 2012 PHMSA study, the Corps and Dakota Access observe that the study included older pipelines and that the type of pinhole leaks the study suggests the CPM system might initially miss are rare. But as the district court noted, the Tribes’ expert observed that “more recent
As for the rarity of pinhole leaks, the Tribes pointed to “numerous examples of pipelines that leaked for hours or days after similar detection systems failed.” Appellees’ Br. 27. In one such instance, DAPL‘s own operator spilled 8,600 barrels of oil during a 12-day-long slow leak in 2016, even though the monitoring system in use there showed the exact same type of “detectable meter imbalance” that the Corps here claims will quickly alert DAPL‘s operators to a slow leak. See Supplemental Appendix (S.A.) 317–18. That same year, at another pipeline buried deep underground in North Dakota, an operator‘s leak detection system “registered an imbalance” and “notified the control room“—but the control room “misinterpreted its own data[.]” PHMSA, Post-Hearing Decision Confirming Corrective Action Order, Belle Fourche Pipeline Co. 5 (Mar. 24, 2017), https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/enforce/documents/520165013H/520165013H_HQ%20Post%20Hearing%20Decision%20Confirming%20CAO_03242017.pdf. That led to a slow release of more than 12,600 barrels of oil into a nearby creek over at least a two-day period, until it was discovered by a rancher at the release site. Id. at 1–2; S.A. 711. So there is ample reason to believe that the magnitude of harm from such a leak could be substantial.
Appearing to acknowledge those troubling examples, the Corps discounts their significance by asserting that leaks will eventually be found. But how rapidly such leaks would be detected and their potential severity are key factors underlying the Corps‘s EA and precisely the issues called into question by the Tribes’ unaddressed criticism. We also note that the volume
DAPL‘s Operator Safety Record
The district court found that the Corps‘s decision to rely in its risk analysis on general pipeline safety data, rather than DAPL‘s operator‘s specific safety record, rendered the effects of the Corps‘s decision highly controversial. We agree.
To analyze the Corps‘s risk assessment, Standing Rock retained as an expert “an attorney, investigator, and process safety practitioner with many decades of experience.” Holmstrom Decl. ¶ 1, S.A. 79–80. The expert explained that “PHMSA data shows Sunoco,” DAPL‘s operator, “has experienced 276 incidents in 2006–2016,” which the expert described as “one of the lower performing safety records of any pipeline operator in the industry for spills and releases.” Id. ¶ 9.
Here, as in the district court, “[t]he Corps focuse[s] its responses on defending the operator‘s performance record itself rather than on justifying its decision to not incorporate that record into its analysis.” Standing Rock V, 440 F. Supp. 3d at 19. In so doing, the Corps and Dakota Access make two arguments.
First, the Corps emphasizes that “70% of [DAPL‘s] operator‘s reported accidents on other pipelines were minor and limited to the operator‘s property.” Appellant‘s Br. 31. But that does nothing to address the “[t]wo central concerns” on which the district court based its decision: “(1) the 30% of spills—about 80 of them—that were not limited to operator property; and (2) the criticism that the spill analysis should have incorporated the operator‘s record.” Standing Rock V, 440 F. Supp. 3d at 20. For its part, Dakota Access argues that while Sunoco‘s number of leaks is high, its number of spills per mile of pipeline operated “is in line with industry averages.” Intervenor‘s Br. 22. Not only has Dakota Access failed to identify record evidence supporting that assertion, the relevant evidence that does exist suggests a serious risk that Sunoco‘s record is worse than the industry average. The Corps‘s own analysis concluded that, industry-wide, there were 0.953 onshore crude oil accidents per 1,000 miles of pipeline in 2016 and 0.848 in 2017. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Analysis of the Issues Remanded by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia Related to the Dakota Access Pipeline Crossing at Lake Oahe 13 (Aug. 31, 2018). By contrast, Dakota Access‘s expert explained that Energy Transfer, Sunoco‘s parent company following a merger, experienced 1.42 “reportable incidents per 1,000 miles of pipeline“—after a 50% decline in incidents on Sunoco lines since 2017. Second Godfrey Decl. ¶ 7, A. 1612. If anything, comparing that figure to the industry-wide average understates the safety gap between Sunoco and other operators because, as Dakota Access and its expert observe, Sunoco is “one of the largest pipeline operators,” Intervenor‘s Br. 22, and its own incidents are included in the average. See Appellant‘s Br. 32 (“The Corps also considered
Nor are we persuaded by the Corps‘s second argument, that it had no need at all to address the operator safety controversy. Though the Corps may have considered “other objective measures of the operator‘s safety practices,”
Winter Conditions
The district court found the Corps‘s response insufficient to resolve criticism of the agency‘s “failure to consider the impact of harsh North Dakota winters on response efforts in the event of a spill.” Standing Rock V, 440 F. Supp. 3d at 20. In particular, the Tribes’ experts explained that shut-off valves might be more prone to failure and response efforts hindered by freezing conditions. Elaborating, Oglala‘s expert explained
The Corps argues that it had no need to engage in a quantitative evaluation of a winter spill scenario because its non-quantitative response was adequate.
Worst Case Discharge
The district court considered the “largest area of scientific controversy” to be “the worst-case-discharge estimate for DAPL used in the spill-impact analysis.” Standing Rock V, 440 F. Supp 3d at 21. The regulations set forth a detailed formula for calculating the worst-case discharge,
The Corps estimated that, for purposes of a worst-case discharge, it would take 9 minutes to detect a leak and 3.9 minutes to close the shut-down valves.
The Corps also argues that, even if, as the Tribes claim, some aspects of the model are unduly optimistic, the model is nonetheless sufficiently conservative because it assumes the pipeline lies directly on top of the water rather than beneath ninety-two feet of overburden.
* * *
Having determined that several serious scientific disputes mean that the effects of the Corps‘s easement decision are likely to be “highly controversial,” we turn to one other issue before considering the appropriate remedy. The Corps and
First, the claimed low risk of a spill rests, in part, on the Corps‘s use of generalized industry safety data and its optimism concerning its ability to respond to small leaks before they worsen—precisely what the Tribes’ unresolved criticisms address. Second, as our court made clear in New York v. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 681 F.3d 471, 478-79 (D.C. Cir. 2012), “[u]nder NEPA, an agency must look at both the probabilities of potentially harmful events and the consequences if those events come to pass.” Id. at 148. A finding of no significant impact is appropriate only if a grave harm‘s “probability is so low as to be remote and speculative, or if the combination of probability and harm is sufficiently minimal.” Id. at 147-48 (internal quotation marks omitted). Doing away with the obligation to prepare an EIS whenever a project presents a low-probability risk of very significant consequences would wall off a vast category of major projects from NEPA‘s EIS requirement. After all, the government is not in the business of approving pipelines, offshore oil wells, nuclear power plants, or spent fuel rod storage facilities that have any material prospect of catastrophic failure. In this case, although the risk of a pipeline leak may be low, that risk is sufficient “that a person of ordinary prudence would take it into account in reaching a decision” to approve the pipeline‘s placement, and its potential consequences are therefore properly considered here. Sierra Club v. FERC, 827 F.3d 36, 47 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (quoting City of Shoreacres v. Waterworth, 420 F.3d 440, 453 (5th Cir. 2005)).
This brings us to the Corps‘s challenge to the district court‘s remedy, and specifically to its orders (1) requiring that the Corps prepare an EIS, (2) vacating the easement pending preparation of an EIS, and (3) ordering that the pipeline be shut down and emptied of oil.
As already explained, “[i]mplicating any one of the [intensity] factors may be sufficient to require development of an EIS.” National Parks, 916 F.3d at 1082. Dakota Access argues that because implicating the “highly controversial” factor does not itself mandate preparation of an EIS, the district court erred in ordering the Corps to prepare one. In National Parks, however, we ordered the Corps to prepare an EIS where, as here, it “failed to make a ‘convincing case’ that an EIS is unnecessary.” Id. at 1087 (quoting Myersville Citizens for a Rural Community, Inc. v. FERC, 783 F.3d 1301, 1322 (D.C. Cir. 2015)). National Parks thus forecloses the idea that we must ordinarily remand to the agency to weigh the intensity factors anew whenever we find that it improperly analyzed one of them.
That National Parks involved multiple intensity factors is at most a superficial distinction between this case and National Parks. For one thing, as explained above, the effects of the Corps‘s easement decision are “highly controversial” in four distinct respects, and we see no good reason for treating differently a decision that implicates multiple significance factors and a decision that implicates a single factor in several important ways. Moreover, both National Parks and this case present “precisely” the circumstances in which Congress intended to require an EIS, namely “where, following an environmental assessment, the scope of a project‘s impacts remains both uncertain and controversial.” Id. at 1087-88. Finally, as in National Parks, the “context” of this case—“a
The Corps and Dakota Access next argue that, even if the district court properly ordered the Corps to prepare an EIS, the court abused its discretion by vacating the pipeline‘s easement in the interim. “The ordinary practice,” however, “is to vacate unlawful agency action,” United Steel v. Mine Safety & Health Administration, 925 F.3d 1279, 1287 (D.C. Cir. 2019) (citing
“While unsupported agency action normally warrants vacatur, [a] court is not without discretion” to leave agency action in place while the decision is remanded for further explanation. Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety v. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, 429 F.3d 1136, 1151 (D.C. Cir. 2005) (citation omitted). In Allied-Signal, Inc. v. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 988 F.2d 146
As to the first factor, the district court concluded that the Corps was unlikely to resolve the controversies on remand because the court had previously remanded without vacatur for just that purpose and the Corps had nonetheless failed to resolve them. Standing Rock VII, 471 F. Supp. 3d at 79-80. The court also explained that the Corps focused on the wrong question: whether, on remand, it would be able to justify its easement decision rather than its decision to forgo an EIS. Id. at 81. (“Looking at the first Allied-Signal factor, the Court does not assess the deficiency of the ultimate decision itself—the choice to issue the permit—but rather the deficiency of the determination that an EIS was not warranted.” (internal quotation marks omitted)).
With respect to the disruptive consequences of vacatur, the district court understood that shutting down pipeline operations would cause Dakota Access and other entities significant economic harm. But for four reasons it concluded that those effects did not justify remanding without vacatur. First, the
On appeal, Dakota Access takes primary responsibility for arguing against vacatur. It contends first that the Corps can “easily substantiate its easement decision on remand even if it must prepare an EIS.” Intervenor‘s Br. 33. But that is not the question. As the district court explained, the question is whether the Corps is likely to justify its issuance of a FONSI and refusal to prepare an EIS. Dakota Access argues that Heartland Regional Medical Center v. Sebelius, 566 F.3d 193 (D.C. Cir. 2009), supports its contrary view that the Allied-Signal factors look to whether an agency can justify the action the court is considering whether to vacate, rather than the challenged procedural decision. There, we sought to determine whether an earlier district court decision had, by declaring a regulatory requirement invalid for failing to consider certain public comments, necessarily vacated the regulation. In making that determination, we concluded that the Allied-Signal factors would have directed remand without vacatur. Id. at 197-98. But because the agency had not elected to forgo a procedural requirement (in that case, notice and comment), only one agency action—the decision to promulgate the
Consider the consequences of Dakota Access‘s contrary approach. If, when an agency declined to prepare an EIS before approving a project, courts considered only whether the agency was likely to ultimately justify the approval, it would subvert NEPA‘s purpose by giving substantial ammunition to agencies seeking to build first and conduct comprehensive reviews later. If an agency were reasonably confident that its EIS would ultimately counsel in favor of approval, there would be little reason to bear the economic consequences of additional delay. For similar reasons, an agency that bypassed required notice and comment rulemaking obviously could not ordinarily keep in place a regulation while it completed that fundamental procedural prerequisite. See Daimler Trucks North America LLC v. EPA, 737 F.3d 95, 103 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (“[T]he court typically vacates rules when an agency ‘entirely fail[s]’ to provide notice and comment . . . .” (quoting Shell Oil Co. v. EPA, 950 F.2d 741, 752 (D.C. Cir. 1991))). When an agency bypasses a fundamental procedural step, the vacatur inquiry asks not whether the ultimate action could be justified, but whether the agency could, with further explanation, justify its decision to skip that procedural step. Otherwise, our cases
Even were we to consider the Corps‘s odds of ultimately approving the easement, our case law still instructs that a failure to prepare a required EIS should lead us to doubt that the ultimate action will be approved. In Oglala Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 896 F.3d 520 (D.C. Cir. 2018), we explained that because NEPA is a “purely procedural statute,” where an agency‘s NEPA review suffers from “a significant deficiency,” refusing to vacate the corresponding agency action would “vitiate” the statute. Id. at 536 (internal quotation marks omitted). As we made clear, “[p]art of the harm NEPA attempts to prevent in requiring an EIS is that, without one, there may be little if any information about prospective environmental harms and potential mitigating measures.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). Put another way, Oglala strongly suggests that where an EIS was required but not prepared, courts should harbor substantial doubt that “the agency chose correctly” regarding the substantive action at issue in this case, granting the easement. Id. at 538 (quoting Allied-Signal, 988 F.2d at 150-51). The Corps resists the proposition that Oglala cautions against applying Allied-Signal in NEPA cases, but that is not the point. The point is that Oglala‘s application of those factors suggests that NEPA violations are serious notwithstanding an agency‘s argument that it might ultimately be able to justify the challenged action.
As for vacatur‘s consequences, Dakota Access contends that while the district court “acknowledged the severe economic disruption that vacatur would cause,” it “wrongly discounted those severe consequences” and “credit[ed] remote, unsubstantiated harms.” Intervenor‘s Br. 35. But in reviewing for abuse of discretion, we “consider whether the decision maker failed to consider a relevant factor, whether he [or she]
In any event, Dakota Access‘s assessment of vacatur‘s consequences is undercut significantly by the fact that we agree that the district court‘s shutdown order cannot stand.
On August 5, 2020, a motions panel of this court ordered that “to the extent the district court issued an injunction by ordering Dakota Access LLC to shut down the Dakota Access
The Tribes argue that an injunction was unnecessary because vacatur itself “invalidat[ed] the underlying easement,” thus requiring the “suspension of pipeline operations pending compliance with NEPA.” Appellees’ Br. 73-74. That is the view the district court appeared to adopt, Standing Rock VII, 471 F. Supp. 3d at 88 (requiring, after vacating the pipeline‘s easement, “the oil to stop flowing and the pipeline to be emptied within 30 days“), and that approach finds some support in our case law. For instance, in Sierra Club v. FERC, 867 F.3d 1357, 1379 (D.C. Cir. 2017), we vacated a pipeline authorization due to a NEPA violation and appeared to assume that vacatur encompassed an end to construction. Likewise in National Parks, we appeared to accept the parties’ assumption that vacating Corps-issued construction permits would require ceasing construction of the challenged electrical towers or tearing them down. See National Parks, 925 F.3d at 502.
The Tribes’ approach, however, cannot be squared with Monsanto, which should caution against reading too far into our tacit approval of shutdown orders in prior cases. If a district court could, in every case, effectively enjoin agency action simply by recharacterizing its injunction as a necessary consequence of vacatur, that would circumvent the Supreme Court‘s instruction in Monsanto that “a court must determine that an injunction should issue under the traditional four-factor
Furthermore, Sierra Club and National Parks differ from this case in a subtle but important way. Those cases involved challenges to agency authorizations of the very activities the court assumed would end. Vacating a construction permit in National Parks, for instance, naturally implied an end to construction. Here, in contrast, we affirm the vacatur of an easement authorizing the pipeline to cross federal lands. With or without oil flowing, the pipeline will remain an encroachment, leaving the precise consequences of vacatur uncertain. In fact, the parties have identified no other instance—and we have found none—in which the sole issue before a court was whether an easement already in use (rather than a construction or operating permit) must be vacated on NEPA grounds. That makes this case quite unusual and cabins our decision to the facts before us.
It may well be—though we have no occasion to consider the matter here—that the law or the Corps‘s regulations oblige the Corps to vindicate its property rights by requiring the pipeline to cease operation and that the Tribes or others could seek judicial relief under the APA should the Corps fail to do so. But how and on what terms the Corps will enforce its property rights is, absent a properly issued injunction, a matter for the Corps to consider in the first instance, though we would expect it to decide promptly. To do otherwise would be to issue a de facto outgrant without engaging in the NEPA analysis that the Corps concedes such an action requires. See Oral Arg. Tr. 36:14-15 (“The Corps‘[s] regulations contemplate that an outgrant would require a NEPA analysis.“). Although the district court was attuned to the discretion owed the Corps, see Standing Rock VII, 471 F. Supp. 3d at 88 (“Not wishing to
IV.
For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the district court‘s order vacating DAPL‘s easement and directing the Corps to prepare an EIS. We reverse to the extent the court‘s order directs that the pipeline be shut down and emptied of oil.
So ordered.