Maryland’s so-called “fireman’s rule,” which we shall hereinafter refer to as the “firefighter’s rule,” is a common law rule that generally precludes police officers and firefighters injured in the course of their duties from suing those whose negligence necessitated the public safety officers’ presence at the location where the injury occurred. We hold that, under the facts of this case, the firefighter’s rule bars Petitioner, Richard White, a police officer injured during a high-speed chase of a fleeing suspect, from suing Respondent, State of Maryland, the employer of a police dispatcher whose negligence caused Petitioner to engage in the high-speed chase. 1
I.
The following undisputed facts were adduced at trial. On the morning of October
[Henrickson]: Maryland State Police in Frederick CPO Henrickson, how may I help you?
[Main]: Yeah I’m in Thurmont at the Ace Hardware. I just got shafted. A guy just robbed it.
[Henrickson]: At the Ace Hardware Store?
[Main]: Yeah.
Henrickson dispatched to the police Main’s call for assistance. The audiotape of the dispatch reveals that Henrickson dispatched the call for help as: “Frederick, all cars, an armed robbery just occurred at the Ace Hardware in Thurmont.” (Emphasis added.) The dispatch also included a description of the getaway vehicle as “a red Nissan” last seen heading toward Route 15.
Petitioner received the call and soon located the suspects driving on a nearby roadway. Petitioner initiated pursuit. He activated the lights on his cruiser, which automatically activated the video camera mounted on the dashboard. The videotape of the pursuit was admitted into evidence at trial. It revealed the following events.
Petitioner and several other police officers, in their respective police cruisers, pursued the suspects over mostly rural, two-lane roads that do not have a shoulder. The suspects’ vehicle is not seen in the video recording. Petitioner, though, communicated to Henrickson that he was in sight of the vehicle intermittently throughout the chase.
Approximately nine minutes into the chase, Petitioner approached a particularly sharp left turn on Yellow Springs Road, a two-lane roadway with a speed limit of 35 miles per hour. The camera recorded both a street sign that warned of the upcoming curve and three vehicles driving along the curve in the opposite direction of Petitioner’s vehicle. The recording shows that Petitioner remained in his lane as he entered the curve but eventually lost control of the vehicle. It fish-tailed off the road, struck a culvert, became airborne, then collided with a tree. Petitioner suffered severe injuries that rendered him unable to recall the chase or any of the events preceding it.
The Trial and Appeal
Petitioner filed a complaint in the Circuit Court for Frederick County, Maryland, naming as defendants Henrickson and Respondent, State of Maryland, and alleging that Henrickson was negligent in issuing the dispatch. Petitioner alleged that Henrickson “owed [Petitioner] a duty to use reasonable care and/or the skill and care of a reasonably competent police dispatcher[,]” and Henrickson breached that duty of care when:
[He] requested emergency personnel response to an armed robbery at the Ace Hardware Store rather than a mere shoplifting, failed to inquire as to whether the suspects had shown or used any type of weapon during the incident prior to dispatching and/or requesting emergency personnel response, failed to make any substantive inquiry as to the threat posed by the suspects to the general public prior to dispatching and/or requesting emergency personnel response,and was in other ways careless, reckless and negligent.
Petitioner further alleged that he relied upon Henrickson to use reasonable care to provide accurate information and would not have commenced the high-speed chase had he not been given the false information that the suspects were armed. Petitioner sued Respondent under the theory of respondeat superior and alleged negligent hiring/supervision and negligence in supervising 911 dispatch protocols.
Before trial, the Circuit Court granted Henrickson’s motion to dismiss the complaint on the basis of qualified immunity. The court, however, denied Respondent’s motion to dismiss the suit, which asserted, inter alia, that the firefighter’s rule barred Petitioner’s claim. The court also denied Respondent’s later motion for summary judgment raising the same argument.
At trial, Petitioner presented evidence of the undisputed facts we summarized above. Petitioner also presented the testimony of Henrickson, who acknowledged that one of the cardinal rules of dispatching is that a communications officer, when talking to a victim, must determine if the perpetrator is armed. Henrickson also conceded that the crime giving rise to the dispatch in question—shoplifting from a hardware store without any use of force—would qualify as a lower-priority call for a responding officer than a call for response to an armed robbery.
Charles Key, who was qualified as an expert in “police training, protocol and procedures[,] including high-speed pursuit and dispatch communications!],]” testified for Petitioner that his actions on the date in question were consistent with standard police training procedures and the actions of a reasonable police officer in the same or similar circumstances. Key opined that Petitioner would not have engaged in the high-speed pursuit if the dispatcher had described the crime as a simple theft.
At the conclusion of Petitioner’s case-in-chief, Respondent moved for judgment, asserting, among other grounds, that Petitioner was barred from recovery by (1) operation of the firefighter’s rule, and (2) his contributory negligence in conducting the pursuit. The court denied the motion. Respondent then presented in its case additional evidence of Petitioner’s contributory negligence, which included expert testimony on the subject.
At the close of all the evidence, Respondent re-asserted both the firefighter’s rule and contributory negligence as grounds for its renewed motion for judgment. The court granted the motion on both asserted grounds.
Petitioner argued on appeal to the Court of Special Appeals that neither the firefighter’s rule nor the doctrine of contributory negligence entitled Respondent to judgment as a matter of law. The Court of Special Appeals affirmed the judgment, holding that the trial court correctly granted judgment in favor of Respondent, by application of the firefighter’s rule.
See White v. State,
Tracing the development of the firefighter’s rule in Maryland, the Court of Special Appeals noted that the rule is now based on public policy that recognizes the relationship between public safety officers, who have assumed certain occupational risks, and the public, whom those officers serve and protect.
Id.
at 669-72,
We granted Petitioner’s petition for writ of certiorari to consider two questions, which we have re-phrased:
1. Whether the Court of Special Appeals erred in concluding that a police officer injured during a high-speed pursuit is barred by the firefighter’s rule from recovering in a tort action alleging negligence by a police dispatcher in giving the police officer faulty information that led to the commencement of the high-speed pursuit?
2. Whether the Court of Special Appeals erred in declining to address whether a “special duty” exception to the firefighter’s rule should be recognized in Maryland?
We agree with the Court of Special Appeals that Petitioner’s suit is barred by application of the firefighter’s rule and therefore affirm the judgment of that court. For reasons we shall explain, we decline to address the second question Petitioner presents.
II.
“[T]he doctrine known as the fireman’s rule generally prevents fire fighters and police officers injured in the course of their duties from recovering tort damages from those whose negligence exposed them to the risk of injury.”
Southland Corp. v. Griffith,
In 1987, with our decision in
Flowers v. Rock Creek Terrace,
In
Flowers,
we traced the development of the rule in Maryland and elsewhere and concluded that the rule was “best explained by public policy!,]” rather than the law of premises liability.
Id.
at 447,
We also looked in
Flowers
to
Sherman v. Suburban Trust Co.,
Sherman was injured during, and not after, the initial period of his anticipated occupational risk, and from a hazard reasonably foreseeable as a part of that risk. He was not injured by reason of any active dangerous force unleashed on the premises after he entered upon the routine performance of his duties....
We saw in
Flowers
that all three previous Maryland cases—
Sherman, Aravanis,
and Steinwedel—“applied the proper standard of care owed to firemen and policemen, and the decisions were correct.”
Flowers,
[A]s a matter of public policy, firemen and police officers generally cannot recover for injuries attributable to the negligence that requires their assistance. This public policy is based on a relationship between firemen and policemen and the public that calls on these safety officers specifically to confront certain hazards on behalf of the public. A fireman or police officer may not recoverif injured by the negligently created risk that was the very reason for his presence on the scene in his occupational capacity. Someone who negligently creates the need for a public safety officer will not be liable to a fireman or policeman for injuries caused by this negligence.
Flowers,
We recognized in
Flowers,
as we had done in
Aravanis
and
Sherman,
that the firefighter’s rule does not bar recovery of tort damages for all improper conduct.
Id.
at 448,
With that explication of the firefighter’s rule as a backdrop, the
Flowers
Court applied the rule to the facts of the case. The plaintiff, firefighter David Flowers, plummeted twelve floors down an open elevator shaft while attempting to evacuate people from a burning apartment building.
Id.
at 436,
With respect to the claims against the building owner and the security company for negligently failing to prevent the fire, we held that Flowers’s claims were “precisely what the fireman’s rule prevents.”
Id.
at 450,
Although these are not allegations of negligence in the creation of the fire that originally brought the firemen to the apartment building, an accident involving an open elevator shaft neverthelessis within the range of the anticipated risks of firefighting----An open elevator shaft concealed by the smoke of the fire is not a hidden danger in the sense of an unreasonable danger that a fireman could not anticipate upon attempting to perform his firefighting duties.
Id.
at 451-52,
We applied the reasoning of
Flowers
in
Tucker v. Shoemake,
Tucker
presents a clear example of the inapplicability of the firefighter’s rule. In that case, the plaintiff, Officer Tucker, sustained injuries after he fell into a negligently maintained manhole while creeping up to the location of a domestic violence report.
Tucker,
Officer Tucker was not injured by a negligently-created risk that occasioned his presence at the trailer park. He was at the trailer park in response to a domestic dispute call, whereas he was injured as a result of stepping on the allegedly improperly seated metal cover to the underground valve compartment. Thus, the negligence alleged to have caused Officer Tucker’s injuries was independent and not related to the situation requiring his services as a police officer.
We rejected in
Tucker
a “transactional approach” to application of the firefighter’s rule, which, as advocated by the respondent in that case, would bar a public safety officer’s recovery for all “acts of negligence which injure them, so long as the officer is injured during the transaction of performing an obligation of his occupation.... ”
Id.
at 421,
Notwithstanding that the firefighter’s rule has its limits, our recent opinion in
Hart
makes clear that the rule applies whenever the officer is injured by risks “inherent ] [in the] dangerous occupation” of firefighting and law enforcement,
Hart,
We reasoned that “Hart can only escape the barring effect of the fireman’s rule if he can show that his injury occurred ‘after the initial period of his anticipated occupational risk’ or because of a ‘pre-existing hidden danger[ ] where there was knowledge of the danger and an opportunity to warn.’ ”
Id.
at 525,
We also rejected Hart’s second contention that the open stairwell was a “ ‘pre-existing hidden danger’ ” to him at the time of his injury; this was so, according to Hart, because the condition “ ‘pre-existed[ ] and was independent of the fire[.]’ ”
Id.
at 526-27,
When a firefighter enters upon property for the purposes of fighting a fire, he or she must generally bear the risk of being injured by causes relating to or arising out of the fire. Hart’s inability to perceive an open stairwell before him as he made his way to the motel building was directly related to smoky conditions from the fire itself.
Id.
at 529,
We explained that the concealed stairwell was “the direct result of the secondary effects of the fire itself,
i.e.,
the smoke,”
id.
at 528,
With all of these cases as a backdrop, we turn to the contentions in the present case.
III.
Petitioner makes three principal arguments in support of his claim that the Circuit Court erred in granting Respondent’s motion for judgment on the ground that Petitioner’s claim is barred by the firefighter’s rule. Petitioner argues that the firefighter’s rule does not apply, given the events precipitating his injuries. He suggests, in that regard, that his injuries resulted from Henrickson’s negligence, which was independent of the cause for his
Respondent urges us to affirm the judgment of the Court of Special Appeals. According to Respondent, Petitioner sustained injuries “while performing a quintessential police function, a high-speed pursuit of criminal suspects,” and therefore this lawsuit falls squarely within the ambit of the firefighter’s rule. Respondent argues that application of the rule in the present case makes sense on public policy grounds because “the thought of possible civil liability should never enter into an emergency responder’s consideration when confronting emergency circumstances.” Respondent disputes Petitioner’s contention that the case falls outside the scope of the firefighter’s rule, explaining that Petitioner was injured in the course of confronting an “anticipated occupational risk” and Henrickson, who had no knowledge of the “sharp curve on Yellow Springs Road” where Petitioner crashed, had no ability to warn Petitioner of a “pre-existing hidden danger.”
A.
Petitioner maintains the view that Henrickson’s negligent dispatch was “independent and not related to” the act requiring his services, which he considers to be the larceny at the hardware store. We disagree. Petitioner was called not to investigate the larceny at the hardware store, but to pursue the fleeing “armed robbery” suspects. The direct impetus, then, for Petitioner’s service was not the earlier larceny (though certainly it set into motion the chain of events that followed), but, rather, Henrickson’s negligent act of reporting the suspects as having fled an armed robbery. Our cases make clear that Petitioner’s suit against Respondent is barred because he was “injured by the negligently created risk that was the very reason for his presence on the scene in his occupational capacity.”
Flowers,
We also reject Petitioner’s contention that his injuries were the result of a “pre-existing hidden danger,” of which Henrickson had knowledge and opportunity to warn. As we made plain in
Hart,
to find that a public safety officer is owed a duty of care under this circumstance would require evidence that the alleged tortfeasor had engaged in knowing “concealment or deceptive appearance, something like fraud, put in the path of the [officer], as would render the danger a trap.”
Nor are we persuaded by Petitioner’s argument that Henrickson’s negligent
We therefore conclude that the firefighter’s rule applies to bar Petitioner’s claim, unless, as he suggests, the rule does not apply to suits between fellow public safety officers. We turn next to that contention.
B.
Petitioner devotes just a few sentences to his argument that the firefighter’s rule is inapplicable to suits between public safety officers. And, he does not provide, nor have we located, any authority to support the proposition. Our research, moreover, discloses no such limitation on the firefighter’s rule. That said, we have not found a case in which a court has confronted directly such a contention and expressly rejected it. We, however, have found cases in which appellate courts have applied the firefighter’s rule to bar lawsuits
brought by public safety officers against government employees. In
Wadler v. City of N. Y.,
New York is not unique in this regard.
See, e.g., Calatayud v. State,
One additional case, consistent with the cases we have discussed, was brought to our attention during oral argument. That case,
Beaupre v. Pierce County,
On appeal, the Washington Supreme Court affirmed the trial court’s ruling. The court held that the professional rescue doctrine did not bar suit against the county because, under the facts of the case, the negligent act that caused Beaupre’s injury was the act of an “intervening part[y]” (the fellow officer) who was “not responsible for bringing [Beaupre] to the scene.” Id. at 717. Though, like the other cases we have cited, the Washington Supreme Court in Beaupre did not directly address the issue, it appears from the court’s analysis that the negligent officer’s status as a fellow public safety officer was of no relevance in the court’s determining the inapplicability of the doctrine.
We mention these cases from our sister jurisdictions not because the firefighter’s rule, as it is understood in those states, is identical to Maryland’s rule in its premise and scope of application. We mention them to make the point that, regardless of the various formulations of the rule, no court appears to have limited the rule to bar only suits brought by public safety officers against citizens.
Petitioner has given us no reason, based either in law or policy, to limit application of Maryland’s firefighter’s rule to suits against citizens. Further, to adopt such a limitation on the rule runs counter to its undergirding public policy, which recognizes that the very nature of the firefighter’s or police officer’s occupation limits the public safety officer’s ability to recover in tort for work-related injuries.
For all these reasons, we hold that the firefighter’s rule bars Petitioner’s suit against Respondent. It follows that the Circuit Court properly entered judgment in favor of Respondent on the basis of the firefighter’s rule.
IV.
Finally, Petitioner asks us to adopt a “special duty exception” to the firefighter’s
Petitioner’s general opposition to application of the firefighter’s rule before the Circuit Court was not sufficient to afford that court the opportunity to decide this issue. This Court typically will not decide issues not raised in or decided by the trial court.
See
Md. Rule 8-131(a);
Livesay v. Balt. County,
JUDGMENT AFFIRMED; COSTS TO BE PAID BY PETITIONER.
Notes
. This case comes to us from the Court of Special Appeals’ affirmance of the trial court's ruling, at the end of all the evidence, granting judgment in favor of Respondent. Consequently, we present all of the evidence in the light most favorable to Petitioner.
See, e.g., Prince George’s County v. Brent,
.
Southland. Corp.
was not decided under the firefighter’s rule but rather the duty of a business owner to its business invitee.
See
. The firefighter's rule was conceived in 1892, in
Gibson v. Leonard,
. By our reckoning,
Sherman
is the first opportunity we had to apply the prevailing view that the standard of care owed to firefighters applies with equal force to police officers.
See Flowers,
. Among our sister states that recognize the firefighter’s rule, some currently rest the rule on the same public policy grounds as Maryland now does. Other states now rest the doctrine on an assumption of risk theory: that firefighters are in the business of fighting fires, voluntarily assume the inherent occupational risks, and therefore should not recover for reasonably foreseeable fire-related injuries.
See Flowers,
More recently, some states have abolished the rule, believing it to be antiquated. New Jersey’s legislature abrogated the rule in 1993, N.J. Stat. § 2A:62A-21 (2011), as did the Florida and Minnesota legislatures in 1990, see Fla Stat. § 112.182 (2011), and 1982, Minn. Stat. § 604.06 (2010), respectively. The Oregon Supreme Court abrogated the rule in
Christensen v. Murphy,
. Consistent with, although predating,
Tucker
is
Schreiber v. Cherry Hill Constr. Co.,
. For much the same reason, even if we were to view more broadly the service Petitioner provided in the present case as responding to investigate the hardware store larceny and not the call to capture the fleeing suspects, the result would be no different. The firefighter's rule applies to injuries from "hazards reasonably foreseeable as part of [the anticipated occupational] risk” that are directly related to the events requiring the officer’s services.
Sherman,