United States of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Joseph L. Tokash, Mitchell E. Kolb, and John Derel Usher, Defendants-Appellants.
Nos. 01-2103, 01-2286 & 01-2295
United States Court of Appeals For the Seventh Circuit
Argued December 5, 2001--Decided March 11, 2002
Appeals from the United States District Court for the Southern District of Illinois. Nos. 99-CR-40045, 99-CR-40047, 99-CR-40049--J. Phil Gilbert, Judge.
Coffey, Circuit Judge. A systemwide search of inmates at the United States Penitentiary at Marion, Illinois, prompted by the May 18, 1999, racially motivated murder of an inmate, revealed that inmates Joseph Tokash, Mitchell Kolb, and John Derel Usher had concealed weapons in their rectal cavities. Tokash, Kolb, and Usher were charged with possessing weapons in a federal prison in violation of
I. Factual Background
On May 18, 1999, Terry Lamar Walker, a black inmate at USP-Marion, was stabbed
On May 19, 1999, one day after the murder, x-ray and digital examinations revealed that five inmates had concealed weapons, steel or plastic knives, in their rectal cavities. Appellants Tokash and Kolb were two of those five inmates. One week later, on May 26, 1999, the same search methods uncovered a steel knife that appellant Usher had hidden in his rectal cavity. On June 9, 1999, a grand jury sitting in the Southern District of Illinois charged Tokash, Kolb, and Usher,1 in separate indictments, with one count of possessing weapons in a federal prison contrary to
In the three appellants’ individual cases, the government filed a pre-trial motion in limine to preclude the defendant from introducing evidence in support of a defense of necessity or other justification defense at trial, unless he made a prima facie showing that he satisfied the legal requirements to raise such a defense. According to the government, the defendants could establish neither that they faced an imminent threat nor that they had availed themselves of all reasonable legal alternatives. The appellants, all white inmates, filed responses and offers of proof in which they complained about the
The trial judge, accepting the facts in the offers of proof as true, agreed with the government that the appellants alleged only a generalized fear of attack by some unknown or unspecified assailant at some unknown time in the future, and that such allegations were legally insufficient to support a necessity or other justification defense. The trial judge further noted that the appellants failed to avail themselves of available legal alternatives prior to arming themselves. Thus the trial judge granted the government‘s motions in limine to preclude evidence or argument regarding a necessity or other justification defense. After ruling in favor of the government on its motions in limine, the trial judge went on to deny the defendants’ motions for depositions and subpoenas duces tecum, ruling that the information the defendants sought was not relevant because the defendants were precluded from introducing evidence regarding a necessity or duress defense.
In separate trials, juries convicted all three defendants on all counts, except that a jury failed to convict Kolb on the second count of unlawfully possessing a weapon in a federal prison arising from the knife found in his cell on October 5, 1999. The defendants-appellants appeal.
II. Issues
III. Analysis
A. Standards of Review
The legal sufficiency of a proffered defense is a question of law and therefore is reviewed de novo. United States v. Simmons, 215 F.3d 737, 740-41 (7th Cir. 2000); United States v. Santiago-Godinez, 12 F.3d 722, 726 (7th Cir. 1993). Generally, whether or not an affirmative defense is available to a defendant requires the resolution of factual issues, and thus, where a court rules on the availability of a pre-trial motion in limine, the trial court must accept as true the evidence proffered by the defendants. See Santiago-Godinez, 12 F.3d at 727. Nevertheless, where the evidence proffered in response to the motion in limine is insufficient as a matter of law to support the affirmative defense a pre-trial ruling precluding the presentation of the defense at trial is appropriate. Id. To entitle a defendant to present an affirmative defense to the jury, his proffer must meet the minimum standard as to each element of the defense, so that if a jury finds it to be true, it would support the defense. Id. In so doing, the defendant must present “more than a scintilla of evidence” that
We review a district court‘s pre-trial discovery rulings under an abuse of discretion standard. Sattar v. Motorola, Inc., 138 F.3d 1164, 1171 (7th Cir. 1998); United States v. Moore, 115 F.3d 1348, 1359 (7th Cir. 1997).
B. Propriety of the Motions in Limine
Initially, the appellants argue that the trial judge‘s order granting the government‘s motions in limine were premature and effectively deprived the defendants of their Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to due process and to have a jury of their peers determine their guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. According to the appellants, the jury ought to have heard their evidence regarding the racial tension at USP-Marion and decide for itself whether the defendants had satisfied all the elements of their proposed defense. Appellants argue that to remove such a determination from the purview of the jury violated their rights to jury trials. Appellants fail to cite even one case, from any jurisdiction or court, that adheres to the philosophy that a trial court‘s ruling on a motion in limine to preclude a defense trammels a defendant‘s constitutional rights. Instead, appellants seize upon language in a 1987 article from the Stanford Law Review to suggest that when a court grants a motion that precludes a defense “it jeopardizes an accused‘s constitutional rights . . . .” 39 Stan. L. Rev. 1271.
In our opinion the appellants’ arguments are without merit and mistake the basic function of a jury. It is a basic premise of our legal system that juries are the triers of fact only; it is for the judge, not the jury, to interpret the law. See, e.g., McNair v. Coffey, No. 00-1139, 2002 WL 111362, *12 (7th Cir. January 29, 2002) (Coffey, J., concurring). In this instance, the trial judge accepted as true all of the statements made in the defendants’ offers of proof, thus erasing any factual issues, and determined whether the defendants had proffered sufficient evidence as a matter of law to
[t]he requirement of a threshold showing on the part of those who assert an affirmative defense to a crime is by no means a derogation of the importance of the jury as a judge of credibility. On the contrary, it is a testament to the importance of trial by jury and the need to husband the resources necessary for that process by limiting evidence in a trial to that directed at the elements of the crime or at affirmative defenses. If, as we here hold, an affirmative defense consists of several elements and testimony supporting one element is insufficient to sustain it even if believed, the trial court and jury need not be burdened with testimony supporting other elements of the defense.
United States v. Bailey, 444 U.S. 394, 416 (1979) (emphasis added).
“Were we to hold . . . that the jury should be subjected to this potpourri even though a critical element of the proffered defenses was concededly absent, we undoubtedly would convert every trial . . . into a hearing on the current state of the federal penal system.” Id. at 417. “A judge may, and generally should, block the introduction of evidence supporting a proposed defense unless all of its elements can be established.” Haynes, 143 F.3d at 1090.
Thus, the trial judge did not err in ruling on the government‘s motions in limine, and, as we explain below, we hold that the judge‘s decisions to exclude any evidence or argument regarding the defenses of necessity or duress were proper.
C. Merits of the Government‘s Motions in Limine
Appellants’ initial claim, that the trial judge committed error in requiring them to demonstrate that they feared an imminent threat, urges us to adopt a rule stating that imminence is not an essential element of the lesser-evil defenses. According to appellants’ theory, lesser-evil defenses should be available to defendants who can establish either that they face an imminent threat of serious bodily harm or that they reasonably believe they have no legal alternatives to violating the law. In support of their theory, appellants read United States v. Bailey and this court‘s precedent following Bailey to suggest that “imminence was one factor which could be considered in an analysis of whether ‘reasonable alternatives’ were available,” but that it was not a necessary element of a justification defense.
But the appellants cleverly misread the Supreme Court‘s doctrine in Bailey and go on to misapply our precedent that relies upon Bailey. The Supreme Court held that escaped convicts were not entitled to an instruction on the defense of necessity or duress because the convicts did not immediately turn themselves in once they had escaped. In so holding, the Court noted that once the inmates had escaped, they no longer faced an imminent threat at the hands of allegedly abusive guards. Bailey, 444 U.S. at 416-17. We have
Appellants, nevertheless, contend that they did face an imminent threat and that they did avail themselves of all legal alternatives. They argue that prison officials were unresponsive to the concerns they expressed regarding racial tensions in the cells and that their requests for racially segregated housing were denied. They further argue that they believed that any recourse through other channels-- prison grievances being one example--would have been fruitless, and indeed might have further exacerbated the danger they faced.
Despite appellants’ creative characterization of the threat they faced, none of the appellants alleged anything remotely resembling an “imminent threat.” Instead, they made only vague and conclusory allegations about the state of USP-Marion and their generalized fears regarding future threats. We have noted in the past that “future” or “later” and “imminent” are opposites. Salgado-Ocampo, 159 F.3d at 327; Haynes, 143 F.3d at 1090. In this case, Kolb alleged primarily that he was assaulted by a black prisoner in December 1995 and February 1997, the latter more than two years prior to his possession of the knife in this case. Kolb further alleged that he had heard of attacks involving white and black inmates and that he feared the possibility that he might be moved to a unit in the prison where he might fear for his safety because he
Appellants’ allegation notwithstanding, we note again that prisons are inherently dangerous places and are inhabited by violent people, but that does not mean that all persons housed in a federal penitentiary, even one filled with the most dangerous prisoners of the land, face an imminent threat of physical assault. See Haynes, 143 F.3d at 1091; United States v. Sotelo, 94 F.3d 1037, 1040 (7th Cir. 1996). If fear of potential future violence were the appropriate standard, as appellants urge us to hold, the absurd result would be that every inmate in any prison across the country could justify their possession of a weapon simply by articulating a fear of some future, possible, and generalized threat. Indeed, we have previously rejected precisely such a formulation, holding that “[i]f prisoners could decide for themselves when to seek protection from the guards and when to settle matters by violence, prisons would be next to impossible to regulate. The guards might as well throw the inmates together, withdraw to the perimeter, and let them kill one another . . . .” Haynes, 143 F.3d at 1091. Appellate courts are ill-equipped to consider and adopt policies and practices to maintain the safety and security of this country‘s penitentiaries. Indeed, the operation of our correctional facilities is “peculiarly the province of the Legislative and Executive Branches of our government, not the Judicial.” Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 548 (1979).
Aside from appellants’ failure to have alleged an imminent threat, they also failed to take advantage of alternative legal remedies prior to violating the law by arming themselves. It is telling that although Tokash, Kolb, and Usher claim to
For completeness’ sake, we comment that legal terms, like “imminence,” can and do have different meanings in different contexts. In the context of the defense of necessity to a criminal charge of possession of a weapon in a prison, imminence means that a prisoner must demonstrate that the threat was immediate and that there was no reasonable alternative to violating the law. We observe that, in the context of the Prison Litigation Reform Act, see
C. Denial of Subpoena Duces Tecum & Depositions
The appellants lastly challenge the trial judge‘s denial of their motions for subpoenas duces tecum, which they sought in order that they might discover evidence somewhere in USP-Marion records to support their necessity defenses. The trial judge denied the motion because the information sought by the appellants was
It is clear that appellants have failed to meet this test. They speculated the records would “document the racial tension, and inadequate remedies available at the Marion prison, as well as, repercussions following the attempt to utilize administrative procedures.” The trial court, however, had ruled explicitly that the defendants were not entitled to proceed under a theory that their possession of the weapons was justified by necessity because they failed to make a threshold showing that they faced an imminent threat that necessitated disregard of the law prohibiting possession of weapons in federal penitentiaries.
The appellants argue that the trial court‘s ruling created a “chicken or egg” dilemma--that they could not establish the threshold showing of the required elements of their proposed necessity defense unless they were allowed their fishing expedition through the records of the Bureau of Prisons. But
We reiterate that prisons are violent places that are populated by violent individuals and as such are at times dangerous. The possession of weapons by inmates, such as the appellants, does not as they suggest lessen the danger and violence of penitentiaries, but instead contributes to it. “[C]entral to all other corrections goals is the institutional consideration of internal security within the corrections facilities themselves.” Wolfish, 441 U.S. at 546-47. Prison administrators should be accorded wide-ranging deference in the adoption and execution of policies and practices that in their judgment are needed to preserve internal order and discipline and to maintain institutional security, and we as an appellate court are ill-equipped to assume that responsibility. Id. at 547-48; see also McCoy v. Gilbert, 270 F.3d 503, 509-10 (7th Cir. 2002); Colon v. Schneider, 899 F.2d 660, 668-69 (7th Cir. 1990). The operation of our correctional facilities is “peculiarly the province of the Legislative and Executive Branches of our government; not the Judicial.” Wolfish, 441 U.S. at 548.
In this case, the appellants chose to disregard the law and armed themselves before testing available legal alternatives, such as filing grievances or seeking protective custody. Their claim that the racial tension in the prisons necessitated their hasty resort to self-help is without merit. Were we to be foolish enough to hold otherwise, we might as well hand the inmates the keys to their cell doors and allow them to govern themselves.
AFFIRMED.