Dаvid Harris appeals his conviction for possession of cocaine with intent to distribute. Harris challenges the district court’s decision to admit testimony against him under Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(E). He then argues that the principal witness for the prosecution was not credible; that the evidence appropriately presented at trial only established his proximity to the drugs, not his actual possession of them; and that said evidence was therefore insuffiсient to sustain a conviction.
For the following reasons, we affirm the conviction.
I. Background
Marc Cannon and Corey Anderson have worked together as drug dealers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for fifteen years. During the tail end of this period, Anderson also worked as a confidential informant (Cl) for the Milwaukee police. David Harris, the defendant-appellant, is Marc Cannon’s cousin. Harris was arrested and convicted of cocaine possession after Milwaukee police discovеred a kilogram of cocaine in a green Ford Excursion sport-utility vehicle he drove from his home in Arkansas.
At trial, the prosecution’s case depended primarily on Anderson’s testimony. Anderson testified that during the spring and early summer of 2006, Cannon told Anderson that his cousin was coming to Milwaukee with a significant amount of cocaine. Harris arrived in Milwaukee sometime around June 25, 2006. That same evening, Cannon called Anderson and told him that his cоusin had arrived. Anderson went to Cannon’s residence on North 39th Street in Milwaukee (one of two residences that Cannon maintained) and met with Cannon and Harris. There, Anderson claimed to have seen some of the two kilograms of cocaine that Harris had brought with him from Arkansas. When Anderson asked Harris how much he was charging for four-and-a-half ounces of cocaine, Harris allegedly replied that “he was gonna let Marc take care of all of that.” Anderson claimed that if he and Harris had successfully moved those two kilograms, Cannon would bring more in the future — an arrangement that would mark a significant step-up in their enterprise.
After meeting with Cannon and Harris, Anderson called Detective Jasemin Pasho, a member of the Milwaukee Police Department’s gang intelligence unit. Anderson had previously both provided Pasho with *397 information on a homicide investigation and a mаrijuana trafficking investigation and arranged controlled purchases of cocaine for her. Anderson told Pasho about what he had seen and heard at Cannon’s house. Specifically, Anderson explained that Cannon and an individual from Arkansas (although he had met with him, Anderson did not know Harris’s name at that time) were traveling in a green Ford Excursion with Arkansas plates and were trying to sell a substantial amount of cocaine. Anderson told Pаsho that he believed the cocaine was concealed in the Excursion, though Pasho later testified that Anderson did not claim that he had actually seen the cocaine in the Excursion. He also told her that Cannon and Harris had asked him whether he could take some of the cocaine.
Pasho called another officer from the gang intelligence unit and told him to go to Cannon’s residence on North 39th Street and to look for the Ford Exсursion. When the police arrived, the Excursion was not there. Pasho then called Anderson, who told her that Cannon also had another residence in the 6500 block of Coldspring Road and that this was his primary residence. Pasho called other officers in her unit and gave them the information about the house on Coldspring Road and the green Ford Excursion, describing it as a vehicle with dark-tinted windows and no front license plate.
Members of the gаng intelligence unit located the Ford Excursion at the Coldspring Road house and set up surveillance. A short time later, the officers stopped the Excursion when they observed Cannon and Harris driving away from the residence. Officers found $8,900 in cash in Harris’s pockets and a full brick of cocaine contained in the rear bench seat of the truck. A search of Cannon’s house on June 27, 2006 turned up additional cocaine hidden in the basement rafters.
Harris was indicted for possession with intent to distribute 500 or more grams of cocaine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) & 841(b)(1)(B). Harris then filed several pretrial motions, including a motion to suppress the evidence seized during the traffic stop of the Excursion. A magistrate judge held an evidentiary hearing on Harris’s suppression motion and issued a report recommending that the district court deny the motion. The district court adopted that recommendatiоn in an order on February 13, 2007. On September 13, 2007, Harris moved to reopen the suppression issue; the magistrate recommended that the district court deny the motion, and the district court subsequently adopted that recommendation.
The grand jury returned a superceding indictment on June 17, 2008, adding a count of conspiracy to distribute more than five kilograms of cocaine. At trial, the government hoped to present the testimony of Marc Cannоn, but informed the court at sidebar before opening statements that Cannon had invoked his Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination with respect to his proposed testimony against Harris. Thus, the principal witnesses against Harris were Corey Anderson and the law enforcement team that made the arrest. After a two-day trial, the jury convicted Harris of the charge of possession with intent to distribute but acquitted him on the conspiracy charge. The district court sentenced Harris to 120 months’ imprisonment and eight years of supervised release. This appeal followed.
II. Discussion
A. Corey Anderson’s Testimony
Harris first objects to the district court’s decision to admit certain portions of Corey Anderson’s testimony under the exception *398 to the hearsay rule for co-conspirator’s declarations. This testimony was mostly hearsay statements by Marc Cannon, such as when Cannon said that “one of his cousins was coming up from down south. Supposed to be bringing some [cocaine] up here;” “[Cannon’s] cousin supposed to come down. He supposed to have a couple [kilograms of cocaine];” and that “his [Cannon’s] cousin was coming down here with some work [some cocaine].”
We review a district court’s decision to admit hearsay statements under the co-conspirator’s exception for abuse of discretion.
United States v.
Prieto,
Harris has a two-part qualm with the district court’s decision to admit Anderson’s statements. He first argues that this court should overrule
Stephenson
and adopt a procedure similar to that used in the Sixth and Tenth Circuits. In those circuits, an appeals court reviewing a district court’s decision to admit statements pursuant to Rule 801(d)(2)(E) first assumes that the evidence is inadmissible and then determines whether the decision to admit it was harmless error beyond a reasonable doubt.
See United States v. Mahar,
Harris next argues that there is not enough evidence in the record for the hearsay statements to pass muster under the rule in
Stephenson.
When considering the admissibility of hearsay statements under Rule 801(d)(2)(E), a district court is allowed to consider the statements themselves as evidence of the conspirаcy.
See Bourjaily v. United States,
In terms of independent evidence, the government argues that the existence of a drug-trafficking conspiracy can be inferred from: (1) the one-kilоgram brick of cocaine found in the Ford Excursion that Cannon was driving with Harris in the passenger seat; and (2) the fact that Harris had $8,900 in cash in his pockets, an amount the government claims is approximately equal to the value of about 500 grams of cocaine (which, together with the cocaine taken from the Excursion and from Cannon’s residence, equals about two kilograms, the amount that Anderson claimed Harris and Cannon had available for sale). Harris attempts to combat this corroborating evidence. He states that, according to the government’s own witness at trial, the value of a half-kilogram of cocaine is in fact about $12,000, not $8,900, and that the mere presence of Harris in a vehicle driven by someone else and registered to a third party (Harris apparently drove the Excursion from Arkansas, but it was not registered to him) is thin evidence of a consрiracy.
The government, however, points to further indications of a conspiracy in Anderson’s testimony. These include Harris’s presence at Cannon’s house when Anderson and Cannon discussed cocaine sales, Harris’s presence when Cannon both showed Anderson cocaine that Harris supposedly brought with him and claimed that Harris could bring more cocaine in the future, and Harris’s statement to Anderson that he would let Cannon take care of setting a price for cocaine. Harris presents counter-arguments against the use of each data point. He explains his presence during the conversations by pointing out that he was only in town for the weekend and was staying with Cannon, and that his alleged willingness to let Cannon take care of the details was in fact a noncommittal statement that did not indicate the existence of a conspiracy. In the alternative, he argues that these statements only indicate the existence of a conspiracy if one assumes that Anderson is credible. Because the district court never made an explicit credibility determination on the record, Harris asks us to either remand to the district court for said determination or reverse outright under the theory that the absence of such a determination dooms the admission of the hearsay statеments at the heart of the case. Harris further points out that the jury’s decision to acquit him on the conspiracy charge signals its skepticism with respect to Anderson’s testimony about a future agreement to buy and sell greater quantities of cocaine.
Both sides agree that the statements, if improperly admitted, were not harmless. Harris argues that Anderson’s testimony was central to the case against him, and the government waived any harmless error argument by not presenting one in its response brief. This presents a close question: the government’s evidence of the conspiracy centers around the disputed hearsay statements themselves (and while Bourjaily permits this kind of bootstrapping, it is not the strongest evidence of a conspiracy) and Harris’s presence in the Excursion when police officers discovered a kilogram of cocaine.
*400 Nonetheless, the preponderance of the evidence on record does support the existence of a conspiracy. First, it is relevant that while Harris was not the owner of the Excursion, he drove it from Arkansas to Milwaukee, and thus there is strong evidence that the cocaine discovered in the car belonged to him. Second, while $8900 found in Harris’s pockets may not exactly equal the street value of a half-kilogram of cоcaine, such an exceedingly large quantity of cash is further circumstantial evidence of Harris’s involvement in drug trafficking. Third, the accuracy of some of Anderson’s statements to the police — most importantly, that there was cocaine concealed in the Excursion- — corroborate his testimony and adequately bolster his credibility. Finally, Harris’s claim that Detective Pasho’s testimony is contradictory lacks merit. Pasho testified thаt Anderson told her he had seen cocaine during his meeting with Cannon and Harris, and that he believed cocaine was concealed in the Excursion, even though he did not personally see it. We therefore defer to the trial court’s decision to characterize Anderson’s testimony as credible, conclude that a preponderance of the evidence on the record supports the existence of a conspiracy, and affirm that the district court properly admitted Anderson’s testimony under Rule 801(d)(2)(E). While the district court should have determined as much pursuant to the procedure set out in Santiago, the absence of such explicit findings in this case is not reversible error. Since the decision to admit evidence was correct, it did not infringe on defendant-appellant’s Sixth Amendment rights.
B. The Traffic Stop of Harris’s Ford Excursion
Harris’s second argument is that the district court erred by admitting evidence seized during the traffic stop of the Ford Excursion in which he was riding. Harris argues that one of the stated bases for the stop — that he was riding in a vehicle that lacked a properly displayed front license plate — is not required in Arkansas, where the car is registered. The district court nonetheless found that there was probable cause for the stop based on the information that Anderson supplied to Pasho, and that in turn the officers who actually conducted the stop had probable cause under the collective knowledge doctrine.
The collective knowledge doctrine provides that
The police who actually make the arrest need not personally know all of the facts that constitute probable cause if they reasonably are acting at the direction of another officer or police agency. In that case, the arrest is proper so long as the knowledge of the officer directing the arrest, or the collective knowledge of the agency he works for, is sufficient to constitute probable cause.
Tangwall v. Stuckey,
The presеnt case falls into the second of those two scenarios. Harris, however, argues that the police officers who actually conducted the stop did not have sufficient communication with Pasho to justify application of the collective knowledge doctrine. He relies heavily on
United States v. Ellis,
Harris argues that in his case, as in Ellis, there was insufficient communication between Pasho and the officers at the scene to justify aрplication of the collective knowledge doctrine. The government counters that Pasho and the officers who conducted the stop were all members of the same police unit and that there was “extensive communication” between Pasho and the officers at the scene. The content of this communication at least included information about the Ford Excursion and the need to conduct a traffic stоp. That information alone would be enough to justify application of the collective knowledge doctrine, as the officers were acting based on Pasho’s request for a traffic stop rather than their own suspicions.
Harris also argues that the information that Anderson supplied to Pasho did not provide probable cause for a traffic stop. When law enforcement agents act on an informant’s tip, a reviеwing court examines (1) whether the informant made first-hand observations; (2) the degree of detail provided by the informant; (3) whether independent information corroborates the informant; and (4) whether the informant has proven to be reliable in past dealings with law enforcement.
United States v. Sidwell,
Anderson had previously provided information to law enforcement as part of various investigations, and Harris does not suggest that he was unreliable in those situations. Nor does Harris challenge Anderson’s firsthand observation of drugs, though he continues to assert that Anderson was inconsistent in claiming that he had seen drugs in the car. Instead, Harris argues that there was no independent corroboration of Anderson’s tip, and that the information was not especially detailed.
However, the tip contained specific information about Cannon’s residence, the car Harris was driving, and Anderson’s interactiоns with both Cannon and Harris. At the very least, those details turned out to be correct. Anderson’s tip also told officers that Cannon and Harris had cocaine in Harris’s truck. In the “Agreed Facts” portion of his motion to suppress, Harris stipulated that “Detective Jasemin P. Miscichoski [Pasho], City of Milwaukee Police Department, reported that on Sunday June 25, 2006 at approximately 7:42 p.m. he [sic] was advised in a telephone *402 conversation with a confidential informant that: 1... a black male, in his late 30’s was driving a Ford green Excursion displaying Arkansas registration plate, and that inside the truck there is hidden approximately 2-3 kg of cocaine.’ ” While Pasho (at the time named Miscichoski) did not question Anderson about whether he had actually seen cocaine in the vehicle, Anderson had seen cocaine in Cannon’s residence and had seen both Cannon and Harris in the same room with cocaine, and heard Cannon claim thаt Harris had driven up from Arkansas with significant quantities of it. As the district court correctly determined, that information would give officers probable cause to stop and search Harris’s vehicle.
C. Sufficiency of Evidence for a Conviction
Harris’s last argument renews his post-judgment motion for acquittal. A challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence is reviewed under an extremely deferential standard. We ask whether “after viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the prosecution,
any
rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.”
United States v. Curtis,
Harris argues that the evidence introduced by the government at trial merely established his proximity to the drugs seized from the truck, but did not establish that he knew the vehicle cоntained cocaine. This Circuit has previously ruled that mere proximity to an item is insufficient to establish possession.
See United States v. Irby,
III. Conclusion
For the foregoing reasons, we Affirm the district court’s judgment of conviction.