Fоr using his law license to help offshore gambling businesses conceal their identities and income, David Tedder has been convicted of conspiring to defraud the United States, see 18 U.S.C. § 371, by assisting a wagering enterprise that violated 18 U.S.C. § 1084, plus three counts of money laundering, see 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h), § 1957. No longer a member of the bar, Tedder is serving a sentence of 60 months’ imprisonment and has been fined more than $1 million; the district court also ordered almost $2.8 million to be fоrfeited. (Tedder resigned from the California bar to forestall resolution of disciplinary charges. He has been enjoined from practicing law in Florida, which he had done there despite his lack of a license.
Florida Bar v. Tedder,
Section 1084(a) is a simple statute, providing: “Whoever being engaged in the business of betting or wagering knowingly uses a wire communication facility for the transmission in interstate or foreign commerce of bets or wagers or informatiоn assisting in the placing of bets or wagers on any sporting event or contest, or for the transmission of a wire communication which entitles the recipient to receive money or credit as a result of bets or wagers, or for information assisting in the placing of bets or wagers,” commits a crime. Ted-der created and operated a business called Clear Pay to move money between gamblers in the U.S. and a Curacao business сalled Gold Medal Sports, which Tedder’s clients operated as a sports book. The Attorney General of Florida had warned Western Union not to wire funds to Gold Medal Sports; Clear Pay offered a solution by preventing Western Union (and other intermediaries) from learning the funds’ ultimate destination. Tedder also created Bahamian shell corporations, purportedly engaged in software development, to help his clients hide their involvement, and wired the gambling business’s profits to nominee accounts of which he was the custodian, plus other foreign investments with a patina of legitimacy.
Tedder told his clients that the disguise would be impenetrable. He was wrong. The clients (Duane Pede and Jeff D’Ambrosia) were caught, pleaded guilty, and testified against Tedder — who contended that he had been
so
mistaken that he had not appreciated the legal problem. Although he was a lawyer, knew about § 1084, and even knew about criminal prosecutions of similar ventures (after which he whipped up still more layers in a futile attempt to shield his clients), Tedder told the jury that he thought that Gold Medal Sports and Clear Pay were upstanding businesses operated in compliance with all laws. This was essentially the tax protester’s defense that he just didn’t think that the law, however clear, applied to his endeavors. See
Cheek v. United States,
*839 Tedder does not contest the sufficiency of the evidence. Instead he contends that the district judge erred in rulings about evidence. His lead argument is that the judge should have allowed him to present additional witnesses who would have testified that they do not think that § 1084 prohibits the sort of transactions in which Tedder engaged. (Section 1084 is not itself a specific-intent crime, but only a person who knows that the money has an unlawful source commits the offense of money laundering.) Tedder did not propose to present an advice-of-eounsel defense based on what other persons told him. Had he done that, he would have been required to waive the attorney-client privilege and allow the prosecutоr access to everything he said to his advisers and what they told him in return. Instead he wanted to show only that his (asserted) belief was widely shared by lay persons. How non-lawyers’ misunderstandings could have reflected on a lawyer’s legal analysis puzzled the district judge — it was at best weak circumstantial evidence about how the statute was understood. So the judge exercised her authority under Fed. R.Evid. 403 to curtail tangential or cumulative evidence and said thаt she would limit to two (or one plus Tedder himself, should he testify, as he did) the number of such witnesses. Tedder replied that two witnesses on this subject would suffice, thus waiving the argument he now advances.
By testifying, Tedder put his veracity at issue. To address that subject, the prosecutor called three witnesses who testified that Tedder is not a truth-teller. Under Fed.R.Evid. 608(a), this evidence had to take “the form of opinion or reputation” rather than specific instances оf deceit. One witness, a lawyer, testified that Tedder’s reputation for truthfulness in the legal community was “poor.” Tedder’s brothers were the other two witnesses; both testified that they had low opinions of his honesty. He contends that the family had been estranged for so long that the brothers’ views were out of date, but honesty is more like climate than like weather: it is a stable attribute even though subject to daily variability. Rule 608(a) does not contain a time limit, so the fact that Ted-der had not spoken with his brothers for a decade did not compel the judge to block them from testifying. See
United States v. Pacione,
The district judge told the jury to consider character evidence “in the same way as all the other evidence in the case.” That came from instruction 3.06 in the circuit’s pattern jury instructions, captioned “Character and Reputation of Defendant.” Tedder says that the judge instead should have used instruction 3.12, captioned “Character of a Witness.” Tedder was both a witness and the defendant, so both versions could be apt. But the two instructions are materially identical. Instruction 3.12 would have told the jury to “consider this evidence in deciding what weight you will give to Tedder’s testimony.” Both 3.06 and 3.12 are uninformative; their only use is in implying no special rules govern character and reputation evidence. See
United States v. Burke,
*840
Tedder proposed to call a reputation witness of his own on rebuttal. The district judge said no, because the only witness Tedder tendered had been in the courtroom during the trial, and the judge had entered an order forbidding testimony by anyone who had listened to other witnesses. See Fed.R.Evid. 615. Tedder now says that the judge should have disregarded that order, but she did not abuse her discretion in sticking to it. Cf.
Wardius v. Oregon,
We turn to sentencing and start with the fine. Although the Guidelines’ fine table prescribes a maximum of $100,000 for someone with Tеdder’s offense level, there is an exception when the statute authorizes a fine exceeding $250,000. See U.S.S.G. § 5E1.2(e)(4). Money laundering in violation of § 1957 is such a statute, as the Sentencing Commission recognized. See U.S.S.G. § 5E1.2 Application Note 5. Section 1957(b)(2) authorizes a fine “of not more than twice the amount of the criminally derived property involved in the transaction.” This governs whether the offense is money laundering or conspiracy to commit money laundering, for the conspiracy statute provides: “Any person who conspires to commit any offense defined in this section or section 1957 shall be subject to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense the commission of which was the object of the conspiracy.” 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). One of the counts on which Tedder has been convicted entailed conspiring to launder $280,070 in proceeds, and another entailed the substantive offense of laundering $250,000. Doubling these produces a statutory maximum high enough to authorize the fine, without needing to consider the $250,000 maximum fines available on the other counts.
Tedder submits that adding the caps from the two counts is a form of double counting, but we do not see why. He does not contend that the counts are multiplicitous or that cumulative punishment is inappropriate under
Blockburger v. United States,
The jury determined that Tedder had received funds that are subject to forfeiture under 18 U.S.C. § 982, and it liquidated the forfeitable proceeds at about $7.3 million. Later the district judge concluded that errors in the instructions had led the jury to miscalculate, and she reduced the forfeiture to roughly $2.8 million. About $1.7 million of this comes from funds held by Challenge Realty, one of the vessels that Tedder had created to hold the venture’s profits, and the rest stаnds as a personal money judgment against Tedder to be satisfied out of assets that he had purchased with the tainted proceeds. See
United States v. Ginsburg,
Although Fed.R.Crim.P. 32.2 offers the defendant a jury trial, this provision (unlike the sixth amendment) is limited to the nexus bеtween the funds and the crime; Rule 32.2 does not entitle the accused to a jury’s decision on the amount of the forfeiture. Even if it did, the rule would not foreclose what amounts to summary judgment or remittitur; as those procedures are compatible with the seventh amendment’s jury-trial right in civil cases, see
Fidelity & Deposit Co. v. United States,
According to Tedder the forfeiture is untenable because he is jointly and severally liable with Pede and D’Ambrosia, who agreed to forfeit more than $3 million as part of them own criminal punishment. Credit that against what Tedder owes and the balance is zero. The district court thought otherwise because the forfeiture ordered against Pede and D’Ambrosia rests on the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act rather than on the money laundering statutes. That’s not a sufficient reason, if Pede and D’Ambrosia already have coughed up the full profits of the venture. Forfeiture reaches proceeds themselves and any traceable substitute assets. 21 U.S.C. § 853(p)(2), 18 U.S.C. § 982(b)(1). It differs in this respect from a fine. If the United States already has all of the boodle, having colleсted it from Pede and D’Ambrosia, then the funds in Tedder’s hands (or Colonial Realty’s accounts) cannot also be traceable proceeds.
But if Pede and D’Ambrosia have surrendered all of the venture’s profits, as Tedder insists, what does the $1.7 million in the Colonial Realty account represent? Both the jury and the district judge concluded that it is gambling proceeds that Tedder'had squirreled away, and he does not now argue that this finding is inadequately suppоrted. And if Pede and D’Ambrosia have disgorged all of the venture’s profits, how could Tedder himself hold $1.1 million that, the judge found, is traceable to gambling profits? The district judge’s concrete findings establish that the $2.8,million forfeited in this prosecution is distinct from the assets that Pede and D’Ambrosia have surrendered. The judge rejected the prosecutor’s argument that funds passed from Pede or D’Ambrosia to Tedder could be forfeited twice (this was the flaw in the jury’s award); the $2.8 milliоn represents only proceeds that came to rest with Tedder or one of the entities he controls. There is no reason to disturb the district judge’s disposition of the forfeiture question.
The sentence of 60 months’ imprisonment is near the high end of a range *842 (51 to 63 months) that the Guidelines prescribe for someone with offense level 24 and criminal history category I, where the district judge placed Tedder. Three of the offense levels are сontested. The district judge added two under U.S.S.G. § 2Sl.l(b)(2)(B) because Tedder had been convicted under § 1956, which forbids conspiracy to commit money laundering. This is one level more than § 2Sl.l(b)(2)(A) prescribes for someone convicted under § 1957, the substantive laundering offense. Tedder contends that he should have been treated as a substantive offender under § 2Sl.l(b)(2)(A). And if he prevails on that issue two more levels must be deducted. Guideline 2Sl.l(b)(3) adds two levels if the laundering was sophisticated (as the district judge found) and the increase under subsection (b)(2)(B) also has been applied. Knock out the extra level from subsection (b)(2)(B), and two levels from subsection (b)(3) go as well. Then Ted-der’s offense level would be 21 and the guideline range would be 37 to 46 months’ imprisonment.
Avoiding the application of subsection (b)(2)(B) seems hard to do, because Tedder has been convicted of conspiracy to commit money laundering, and subsectiоn (b)(2)(B) therefore applies according to its terms. But did the Sentencing Commission really prescribe a two-level increase for all who conspire to launder criminal proceeds? Application Note 3(C) to § 2S1.1 reads: “Non-Applicability of Enhancement. — Subsection (b)(2)(B) shall not apply if the defendant was convicted of a conspiracy under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h) and the sole object of that conspiracy was to commit an offense set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 1957.” That describes Tedder’s situation precisely: he has been convicted under § 1956(h), and the sole object of that conspiracy was the substantive offense specified in § 1957.
Declining to apply Application Note 3(C), the district judge deemed it limited to eases in which the base offense level is unrelated to any other crime. How the district judge reached this conclusion requires a bit of background.
Guideline 2Sl.l(a) specifies the base offense level. Here it is:
(1) The оffense level for the underlying offense from which the laundered funds were derived, if (A) the defendant committed the underlying offense (or would be accountable for the underlying offense under subsection (a)(1)(A) of § 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct)); and (B) the offense level for that offense can be determined; or
(2) 8 plus the number of offense levels from the table in § 2B1.1 (Theft, Property Destruction, and Fraud) corresponding to the value of the laundered funds, otherwise.
Apрlication Notes 2 and 3 correspond to subsections (a)(1) and (a)(2). To provide context, we reproduce them in full:
2. Application of Subsection (a)(1).—
(A) Multiple Underlying Offenses. — In cases in which subsection (a)(1) applies and there is more than one underlying offense, the offense level for the underlying offense is to be determined under the procedures set forth in Application Note 3 of the Commentary to § 1B1.5 (Interpretation of References to Other Offense Guidelines).
(B) Defendants Accountable for Underlying Offense. — In order for subsectiоn (a)(1) to apply, the defendant must have committed the underlying offense or be accountable for the underlying offense under § lB1.3(a)(l)(A). The fact that the defendant was involved in laundering criminally derived funds after *843 the commission of the underlying offense, without additional involvement in the underlying offense, does not establish that the defendant committed, aided, abetted, counseled, commanded, induced, procured, or willfully caused the underlying offense.
(C) Application of Chapter Three Adjustments. — Nоtwithstanding § lB1.5(e), in cases in which subsection (a)(1) applies, application of any Chapter Three adjustment shall be determined based on the offense covered by this guideline (i.e., the laundering of criminally derived funds) and not on the underlying offense from which the laundered funds were derived.
3. Application of Siibsection (a)(2).—
(A) In General. — Subsection (a)(2) applies to any case in which (i) the defendant did not commit the underlying offense; or (ii) the defendant committed the underlying offense (or would be aсcountable for the underlying offense under § lB1.3(a)(l)(A)), but the offense level for the underlying offense is impossible or impracticable to determine.
(B) Commingled Funds. — In a case in which a transaction, financial transaction, monetary transaction, transportation, transfer, or transmission results in the commingling of legitimately derived funds with criminally derived funds, the value of the laundered funds, for purposes of subsection (a)(2), is the amount of the criminally derived funds, not the total аmount of the commingled funds, if the defendant provides sufficient information to determine the amount of criminally derived funds without unduly complicating or prolonging the sentencing process. If the amount of the criminally derived funds is difficult or impracticable to determine, the value of the laundered funds, for purposes of subsection (a)(2), is the total amount of the commingled funds.
(C)Non-Applicability of Enhancement. — Subsection (b)(2)(B) shall not apply if the defendant was convicted of a conspiracy under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h) and the sole object of that conspiracy was to commit an offense set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 1957.
The district judge concluded that because Application Note 3(C) is under the caption “Application of Subsection (a)(2)” it governs only when the base offense level derives from that subsection. Tedder’s funds came from a gambling offense, so subsection (a)(1) furnished the base offense level even though, according to the indictment, the sole object of the § 1956(h) conspiracy was a violation of § 1957. That meant, the district court concluded, that Application Note 3(C) dropped out of the picture, because subsection (a)(2) had not been used to generate the base offense level.
The problem is that the substance of Application Note 3(C) — the rule that the two-level enhancement under subsection (b)(2)(B) does not apply if the “sole objеct of [the charged] conspiracy” is money laundering — includes some prosecutions that lead to the use of subsection (a)(1) as well as all prosecutions in which resort to the fallback subsection (a)(2) is required. It is hard to imagine why application of the rule in Note 3(C) should turn on which subdivision of subsection (a) was used to derive the base offense level: the United States offers no reason in its appellate brief, and the Sentencing Commission was silent on the subject. The other five sub-parts of Application Notes 2 and 3 explicitly refer to subsection (a)(1) or (a)(2); Note *844 3(C) alone does not, and its text suggests a more general application. It is hard to resist the feeling that someone hit the tab key and produced an indent (and hence a subsection (Q) when a new Application Note under its own heading would have been called for.
Our job is to interpret and apply the enacted rules rather than to improve on them. But interpretation covers only the rules’ text. Titles, headings, and captions may help disambiguate adopted texts, but they are not themselves rules of law. See, e.g.,
INS v. St. Cyr,
Whether this conclusion will benefit Tedder in the end is a question for the district judge. Booker provides district judges with additional discretion, so on remand the judge might reimpose the 60-month sentence if she thinks it the most appropriate response to Tedder’s crimes and risks of recidivism; appellate review after Booker is for reasonableness. But our holding makes the range of 37 to 46 months’ imprisonment available without any need to justify departure from the Guidelines.
The judgment is affirmed except with respect to the term of imprisonment. That aspect of the judgment is vacated, and the case is remanded with instructions to resentence Tedder in light of Booker and this opinion.