Lead Opinion
delivered the opinion of the Court.
South Carolina invokes the Court’s original jurisdiction
The Secretary objects to the motion on the ground that the Anti-Injunction Act, 26 U. S. C. § 7421(a), bars this action
I — I
Section 103(a) of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) exempts from a taxpayer’s gross income the interest earned on the obligations of any State.
Because the imposition of a tax on bearer bonds would require a State to pay its bondholders a higher rate of interest on such bonds, South Carolina argues that the practical effect of § 103(j)(l) is to require it to issue its obligations in registered form. For that reason, South Carolina argues that the
The Secretary does not address the merits of the State’s constitutional claims. Rather, he argues that we may not grant the motion to file because this action is barred by the Anti-Injunction Act. The Act provides, in pertinent part, that “no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court by any person, whether or not such person is the person against whom such tax was assessed.”
II
When enacted in 1867, the forerunner of the current Anti-Injunction Act provided that “no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of tax shall be maintained in any court.” Act of Mar. 2,1867, § 10,14 Stat. 475.
The Act originated as an amendment to a statute that provided that
“[n]o suit shall be maintained in any court for the recovery of any tax alleged to have been erroneously or illegally assessed or collected, until appeal shall have been duly made to the commissioner of internal revenue . . . and a decision of said commissioner shall be had thereon, unless such suit shall be brought within six months from the time of said decision . . . .” Internal Revenue Act of July 13, 1866, § 19, 14 Stat. 152.
The Anti-Injunction Act amended this statute by adding the prohibition against injunctions. Act of Mar. 2, 1867, § 10, 14
The Secretary argues that, regardless of whether other remedies are available, a plaintiff may only sue to restrain the collection of taxes if it satisfies the narrow exception to the Act enunciated in Williams Packing, supra. Williams Packing did not, however, ever address, let alone decide, the question whether the Act applies when Congress has provided no alternative remedy. Indeed, as we shall see, a careful reading of Williams Packing and its progeny supports our conclusion that the Act was not intended to apply in the absence of such a remedy.
Williams Packing was a taxpayer’s suit to enjoin the District Director of the Internal Revenue Service from collecting allegedly past-due social security and unemployment taxes. The Court concluded that the Anti-Injunction Act would not apply if the taxpayer (1) was certain to succeed on the merits, and (2) could demonstrate that collection would cause him irreparable harm.
In each of this Court’s subsequent cases that have applied the Williams Packing rule, the plaintiff had the option of paying the tax and bringing a suit for a refund. Moreover, these cases make clear that the Court in Williams Packing and its progeny did not intend to decide whether the Act would apply to an aggrieved party who could not bring a suit for a refund.
In addition, in Alexander v. “Americans United” Inc.,
The analysis in Williams Packing and its progeny of the purposes of the Act provides significant support for our holding today. Williams Packing expressly stated that the Act was intended to protect tax revenues from judicial interference “and to require that the legal right to the disputed sums be determined in a suit for refund.”
Nor is our conclusion inconsistent with the 1966 amendment to the Anti-Injunction Act. In 1966, in § 110(c) of the Federal Tax Lien Act, Pub. L. 89-719, 80 Stat. 1144, Congress amended the Anti-Injunction Act to read, in pertinent
The Secretary suggests that the State may obtain judicial review of its claims by issuing bearer bonds and urging a purchaser of those bonds to bring a suit contesting the legality of § 103(j)(l). But the nature of this proposed remedy only buttresses our conclusion that the Act was not intended to apply to this kind of action. First, instances in which a third party may raise the constitutional rights of another are the exception rather than the rule. Singleton v. Wulff,
I — I HH 1 — I
The Secretary argues that if we conclude that the Anti-Injunction Act is not a bar to this suit, we should in any event exercise our discretion to deny leave to file. He notes that the Court’s jurisdiction over this suit is not exclusive and that the Court exercises its “original jurisdiction sparingly and [is] particularly reluctant to take jurisdiction of a suit where the
Accordingly, plaintiff’s motion for leave to file a complaint is granted and a Special Master will be appointed.
It is so ordered.
Notes
Part III of the opinion is joined only by The Chief Justice, Justice White, and Justice Marshall.
U. S. Const., Art. III, §2; 28 U. S. C. § 1251(b).
Defendant also argues that the Court may not grant declaratory relief because the Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U. S. C. §2201 (1982 ed.), which authorizes “any court of the United States” to issue a declaratory judgment in an appropriate case, excepts from its coverage most actions “with respect to Federal taxes.” Because of our disposition of the case, we need not decide at this time whether we may grant declaratory relief should plaintiff prevail on the merits.
IRC § 103(a) provides in pertinent part:
“(a) General rule
“Gross income does not include interest on—
“(1) the obligations of a State, a Territory, or a possession of the United States, or any political subdivision of any of the foregoing, or of the District of Columbia . . . .”
Temporary Regulation §5f. 103-1 provides:
“An obligation is in registered form if —
“(i) The obligation is registered as to both principal and any stated interest and transfer of the obligation may be effected only by the surrender of the old instrument and either the reissuance by the issuer of the old instrument to the new holder or the issuance by the issuer of a new instrument to the new holder, or
“(ii) The right to the principal of, and stated interest on, the obligation may be transferred only through a book entry system (as described in paragraph (c)(2) of this section).” 26 CFR §5f. 103-1 (1983).
Section 103(j)(l) provides as follows:
“(j) Obligations must be in registered form to be tax-exempt
“(1) In general
“Nothing in subsection (a) or in any other provision of law shall be construed to provide an exemption from Federal income tax for interest on any registration-required obligation unless the obligation is in registered form.”
Section 103(j)(2) defines a registration-required obligation as any obligation other than an obligation that “(A) is not of a type offered to the public, (B) has a maturity (at issue) of not more than 1 year, or (C) is described in section 163(f)(2)(B).”
Since we have decided to appoint a Special Master to develop a factual record, see infra, at 382, we express no opinion on the merits of the State’s claims.
The full text of the Act reads:
“Except as provided in sections 6212(a) and (c), 6213(a), 6672(b), 6694(c), 7426(a) and (b) (1), and 7429(b), no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court by any person, whether or not such person is the person against whom such tax was assessed.” IRC § 7421(a).
None of the statutory exceptions is relevant in this case.
Because of our disposition of the statutory issue, we need not reach the State’s contention that application of the Act to bar this suit would unconstitutionally restrict this Court’s original jurisdiction.
In the revised statutes, the term “any” was added so that the statute read: “No suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court.” Snyder v. Marks,
A “friendly donor” suit is a suit in which a donor claims that his contributions to an organization should be tax deductible because the organization’s tax-exempt status had been revoked improperly.
In “Americans United," the IRS had revoked the organization’s § 501(c)(3) status, but found that it was eligible for § 501(c)(4) status. Although the organization’s income remained tax exempt, “[t]he effect of this change in status was to render respondent liable for unemployment (FUTA) taxes under Code § 3301, 26 U. S. C. § 3301, and to destroy its eligibility for tax deductible contributions under § 170.”
Unlike Justice O’Connor, we do not believe that Congress’ concerns with judicial interference overrode all other concerns. This case is difficult because it implicates Congress’ concern with providing remedies as well as its concern with limiting remedies.
Any dicta in Bob Jones suggesting that, prior to the enactment of the Tax Lien Act, the Anti-Injunction Act barred suits by third parties claiming that a federal tax lien impaired their property rights may be disregarded.
Section 110(a), codified at 26 U. S. C. § 7426, provides in pertinent part:
“If a levy has been made on property or property has been sold pursuant to a levy, and any person (other than the person against whom is assessed the tax out of which such levy arose) who claims an interest in or lien on such property and that such property was wrongfully levied upon may bring a civil action against the United States in a district court of the United States.”
In Bob Jones, we held that the 1966 amendment did not merely limit the remedies of third parties challenging federal tax liens. Rather, the
Similarly, we stated in “Americans United" that “a suit to enjoin the assessment or collection of anyone’s taxes triggers the literal terms” of the Act.
Justice O’Connor relies heavily on Assistant Treasury Secretary Surrey’s statement to the House Ways and Means Committee to support her view that the 1966 amendment to the Anti-Injunction Act was intended to prohibit third parties from suing to restrain the collection of taxes regardless of whether Congress has provided them with an alternative remedy. Post, at 389-390. This reliance is misplaced.
Although the Assistant Secretary described the amendment as a restriction on third-party suits, when read in context, it is unclear whether he was referring to all third parties, including those without alternative remedies, as Justice O’Connor believes, or only to those third parties who were granted a right of action by § 110(a) of the Federal Tax Lien Act. See Statement by the Hon. Stanley S. Surrey, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, reprinted in Hearings on H. R. 11256 and H. R. 11290, supra, at 58.
Even if Assistant Secretary Surrey viewed the 1966 amendment as prohibiting suits by third parties who had no alternative remedies, there is nothing in the legislative history of that amendment to support the view that Congress shared that belief. Justice O’Connor relies on the statements in the House and Senate Reports that “ ‘[ujnder present law. . . the United States cannot be sued by third persons where its collection activities interfere with their property rights,’ ” post, at 389, quoting H. R. Rep. No. 1884, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 27 (1966); S. Rep. No. 1708, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 29 (1966). Since the Anti-Injunction Act had been widely construed not to bar such suits, see n. 14, supra, however, this statement simply could not have been intended as a description of the effect of that Act.
As the Secretary notes, IRC §7478 does not provide plaintiff with an action in which it may contest the constitutionality of § 103(j)(l). That sec
Justice O’Connor relies on statements in the legislative history of IRC § 7478 indicating that Congress believed that, prior to the enactment of that section, prospective issuers of state and local bonds had no means to determine whether the interest on their bonds would be tax exempt. Post, at 391-392. In her view, these statements are strong evidence that Congress intended the Anti-Injunction Act to apply regardless of the availability of an alternative remedy.
We find these statements unpersuasive. To the extent that these statements, which do not even refer to the Anti-Injunction Act, may be read as expressing the view that the Act should be construed to bar suits regardless of the availability of alternative remedies, they are the views of a subsequent Congress and, therefore, at best, “ ‘form a hazardous basis for inferring the intent of an earlier one.’ ” Consumer Product Safety Comm’n v. GTE Sylvania, Inc.,
Justice O’Connor, relying on Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC,
Indeed, Justice O’Connor does not consistently accord “great weight” to the legislative history of § 7478. In Part I of her opinion, she states that the legislative history of § 7478 represents Congress’ “belief that the Tax
For similar reasons, we find the remaining postenactment history upon which Justice O’Connor relies, post, at 390-391, to be unconvincing. Whatever the weight to which these statements are entitled, they are ultimately unpersuasive in light of the other evidence of congressional intent discussed above.
It is not irrelevant that the IRS routinely audits the returns of taxpayers who litigate claims for refunds. U. S. Dept. of Treasury, Chief Counsel’s Directives Manual (35)(17)50 (1982).
Justice O’Connor suggests that our holding today will enable taxpayers to evade the Anti-Injunction Act by forming organizations to litigate their tax claims. Post, at 386, 394. We disagree. Because taxpayers have alternative remedies, it would elevate form over substance to treat such organizations as if they did not possess alternative remedies. Accordingly, such organizations could not successfully argue that the Act does not apply because they are without alternative remedies.
Justice O’Connor also appears to suggest that our holding today renders the Act a restatement of the equitable principles governing the issuance of injunctions at the time the statute was enacted. Post, at 388, n. 5. This argument is without merit since these equitable principles did not require that injunctions issue only when no alternative remedy was available. See, e. g., Dows v. Chicago,
Concurrence Opinion
concurring in the judgment.
I, too, agree with all those who have written opinions in this case that the Anti-Injunction Act, 26 U. S. C. § 7421(a), is no bar to the ability of the State of South Carolina to invoke the original jurisdiction of this Court in order to challenge the validity of a federal tax statute. Like Justice O’Connor, I have reservations about the breadth of the approach taken by Justice Brennan in determining that Congress did not intend the Act to apply in any case in which the aggrieved party has no alternative avenue by which to contest the legality of a particular tax.
In Bob Jones University v. Simon,
Unlike Justice O’Connor, I see no need to decide whether Congress intended the Anti-Injunction Act to apply to suits invoking this Court’s original jurisdiction. I would decide this case on the narrower ground set forth in my dissenting opinion in “Americans United,”
The acknowledged purpose of Congress in enacting §310 (b)(1) of TEFRA ip 1982 so as to add a new § 103(j) to the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was to encourage the States to issue securities in registered form. See Staff of Joint Committee on Taxation, General Explanation of the Revenue Provisions of the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, 97th Cong., 2d Sess., 190 (Comm. Print 1982). In a case such as this, where it is evident that the challenged governmental action is one to “accomplish a broad-based policy objective” rather than to produce revenue, see “Americans United,”
Although I would not hold the Anti-Injunction Act to be a bar to South Carolina’s ability to bring this suit in another court, I agree that we should hear this case. Exercise of our original jurisdiction is discretionary and, though the Court has exercised it sparingly, we are not prohibited from doing so by the fact that the original party may have an alternative forum. See Georgia v. Pennsylvania R. Co.,
with whom Justice Powell, and Justice Rehnquist join, concurring in the judgment.
The motion of South Carolina for leave to file a complaint in our original jurisdiction raises three questions. First, the Court must decide whether Congress intended by the
In answering the first question, the Court reaches the unwarranted conclusion that the Tax Anti-Injunction Act proscribes only those suits in which the complaining party, usually a taxpayer, can challenge the validity of a taxing measure in an alternative forum. The Court holds that suits by nontaxpayers generally are not barred. In my opinion, the Court’s interpretation fundamentally misconstrues the congressional anti-injunction policy. Accordingly, I cannot join its opinion.
I
A
The Tax Anti-Injunction Act provides, in pertinent part, that “no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court by any person, whether or not such person is the person against whom such tax was assessed.” 26 U. S. C. § 7421(a). The Act’s language “could scarcely be more explicit” in prohibiting nontaxpayer suits like this one, Bob Jones University v. Simon,
In depriving courts of jurisdiction to resolve abstract tax controversies, Congress has determined that the United States must be able “to assess and collect taxes alleged to be due without judicial intervention . . . .” Enochs v. Williams Packing & Navigation Co., 370. U. S. 1, 7 (1962). “[T]axes are the life-blood of government,” Bull v. United States,
B
The Act’s history expressly reflects the congressional desire that all injunctive suits against the tax collector be prohibited. First enacted in 1867,
“. . . sense of. . . the evils to be feared if courts of justice could, in any case, interfere with the process of collect*388 ing the taxes on which the government depends for its continued existence.” State Railroad Tax Cases, supra, at 613.
The experience in the States demonstrated the grave dangers which accompany intrusion of the injunctive power of the courts into the administration of the revenue:
“If there existed in the courts . . . any general power of impeding or controlling the collection of taxes, or relieving the hardship incident to taxation, the very existence of the government might be placed in the power of a hostile judiciary.” Cheatham v. United States,92 U. S. 85 , 89 (1876).
To avoid these evils and to safeguard the federal tax system, the 39th Congress committed administration of the Code to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury.
This broad anti-injunction ban remained essentially untouched for almost a century.
“Subsection (c) of section 110 of the bill amends section 7421(a) of the code. That section presently prohibits injunctions against the assessment or collection of tax. The cases decided under this provision raise a question as to whether this prohibition applies against actions by persons other than the taxpayer. New section 7426 will specifically allow actions by third parties to enjoin the enforcement of a levy or sale of property. The amendment to section 7421 makes clear that third parties may bring injunction suits only under the circumstances provided in new section 7426(b)(1) of the code.” Statement by the Hon. Stanley S. Surrey, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, reprinted in Hearings on H. R. 11256 and H. R. 11290, before the House Committee on Ways and Means, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 58 (1966).
The House Committee on Ways and Means and the Senate Committee on Finance apparently shared Mr. Surrey’s understanding of the rights of nontaxpayers under prior law, for their Reports both state:
“Under present law, . . . the United States cannot be sued by third persons where its collection activities interfere with their property rights. This includes cases where the Government wrongfully levies on one person’s property in attempting to collect from a taxpayer. However, some courts allow suits to be brought against*390 district directors of Internal Revenue where this occurs.” H. R. Rep. No. 1884, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 27 (1966); S. Rep. No. 1708, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., 29 (1966).
To accommodate these conflicting rights, both Committees recommended that Congress enact § 7426, allowing “persons other than taxpayers” to bring suits against the United States to protect pre-existing liens on property levied upon by the Treasury, and amend § 7421(a) to forbid suits by all third persons, excepting those within the ambit of new §7426. Congress followed the Committees’ recommendations, on the understanding that the new language in § 7421(a) was “declaratory, not innovative.” Bob Jones University v. Simon,
Congress has since relaxed the statutory proscription against third-party suits on several occasions. For example, in 1974, it provided that certain designated persons could obtain declaratory judgments in the Tax Court with respect to the tax status of pension plans. See 26 U. S. C. §7476. Similarly, in 1976, because “[u]nder [prevailing] law no court review of [Internal Revenue Service] rulingfs] [was] available,” H. R. Conf. Rep. No. 94-1515, p. 463 (1976), Congress provided declaratory judgment procedures for determining the tax status of charitable organizations and of certain property transfers. See 26 U. S. C. §§ 7428, 7477; see also H. R. Conf. Rep. No. 94-1515, supra, at 523-524 (“Under present
“As a practical matter, there is no effective appeal from a Service private letter ruling (or failure to issue a private letter ruling) that a proposed issue of municipal bonds is taxable. In those cases, although there may be a real controversy between a State or local government and the Service, present law does not allow the State or local government to go to court. The controversy can be resolved only if the bonds are issued, a bondholder excludes interest on the bonds from income, the exclusion is disallowed, and the Service asserts a deficiency in its statutory notice of deficiency. This uncertainty coupled with the threat of the ultimate loss of the exclusion, invariably makes it impossible to market the bonds. In addition, it is impossible for a State or local government to question the Service rulings and regulations directly.
“[Sjtate and local governments] should have a right to court adjudication in the situation described above. The bill deals with the problem by providing ... for a declaratory judgment as to the tax status of a pro*392 posed issue of municipal bonds.” S. Rep. No. 95-1263, pp. 150-151 (1978).
The Conference Report reflects a similar view of prevailing law. See H. R. Conf. Rep. No. 95-1800, p. 240 (1978). Thus, in 1974, 1976, and again in 1978, Congress expressed its belief that the Tax Anti-Injunction Act generally bars nontaxpayers from bringing the kind of injunctive action the State of South Carolina asks leave to file today.
These subsequently enacted provisions and the legislative understanding of them are entitled to “great weight” in construing earlier, related legislation. See, e. g., Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC,
C
The Court drew these same conclusions in Bob Jones University v. Simon. See
“was meant to be the capstone to judicial construction of the Act. It spells an end to a cyclical pattern of allegiance to the plain meaning of the Act, followed by periods of uncertainty caused by a judicial departure from that meaning, and followed in turn by the Court’s rediscovery of the Act’s purpose.”416 U. S., at 742 .
Bob Jones University then reaffirmed that, except where a litigant can show both that the Government would “under no circumstances . . . prevail” and that equity jurisdiction is otherwise present, the Act would be given its “literal effect.” Id., at 737, 742-745.
Because the plaintiffs in Bob Jones University were assured ultimately of having access to a judicial forum, the Court did not definitively resolve whether Congress could bar a tax suit in which the complaining party would be denied all access to judicial review. See id., at 746. But the Court’s reference to “a case in which an aggrieved party has no access at all to judicial review” came in the context of its discussion of the taxpayer’s claim that postponement of its challenge to the revocation of its tax-exempt status would violate due process. Bob Jones University’s dictum, therefore, should be interpreted only as reflecting the established rule that Congress cannot, consistently with due process, deny a taxpayer with property rights at stake all opportunity for an ultimate judicial determination of the legality of a tax assessment against him. See Phillips v. Commissioner,
In holding that the Act does not bar suits by nontax-payers with no other remedies, the Court today has created a “breach in the general scheme of taxation [that] gives an opening for the disorganization of the whole plan . . . .” Allen v. Regents of University System of Ga.,
I — I ( — I
The Act s language, purpose, and history should leave no doubt that Congress intended to preclude both taxpayer and nontaxpayer suits, regardless of the availability of an alternative forum. The Solicitor General agrees and contends that, since the anti-injunction prohibition extends to “any court,” it should be read to bar this Court from acting in its original jurisdiction as well. The Solicitor General’s contention raises a grave constitutional question: namely, whether Congress constitutionally can impose remedial limitations so jurisdictional in nature that they effectively withdraw the original jurisdiction of this Court.
A
Under the language used in Art. Ill of the Constitution, Congress relates to the courts of the United States in three textually different ways.
Though the original history of Art. Ill is sparse,
Our cases have long paid tribute to the foreign sovereignty and federalism concerns forming the basis of the original jurisdiction. See Ames v. Kansas, supra, at 464-465; Maryland v. Louisiana,
To be sure, the Tax Anti-Injunction Act does not expressly withdraw the original jurisdiction of this Court. Rather, it merely prohibits “any court” from “maintain[ing]” a suit that has “the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection” of federal taxes. See 26 U. S. C. § 7421(a). The effect of this prohibition, however, is to preclude this Court ever from assuming original jurisdiction to adjudicate a State qua State’s Tenth and Sixteenth Amendment tax claims, in apparent derogation of the grant’s constitutional purpose.
B
Nevertheless, it is this Court’s longstanding practice to avoid resolution of constitutional questions except when absolutely necessary. Ibid. “When the validity of an act of the Congress is drawn in question, and even if a serious doubt of constitutionality is raised, it is a cardinal principle that this Court will first ascertain whether a construction of the statute is fairly possible by which the question may be
The manifest purpose of the Tax Anti-Injunction Act is simply to permit the United States to assess and collect taxes without undue judicial interference and to require that legal challenges be raised in certain designated forums. The language and history of the Act evidence a congressional desire generally to bar both taxpayer and nontaxpayer suits, since both can substantially interrupt “the process of collecting the taxes on which the government depends for its continued existence” if left uncontrolled. State Railroad Tax Cases,
Admittedly, the Act precludes “any court” from maintaining a suit initiated for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of federal taxes. See 26 U. S. C. § 7421(a). That language clearly instructs all courts that Congress constitutionally controls not to prematurely interfere with the assessment and collection of federal taxes. That language does not, however, necessarily encompass this Court, which Congress did not create and which Congress is not expressly empowered to make “Exceptions” or “Regulations” as to its original jurisdiction. Moreover, since only a small number of pre-enforcement suits could conceivably involve a party for whom the original jurisdiction was created,
Ill
Interpreting the Tax Anti-Injunction Act to bar both taxpayer and nontaxpayer claims in “any court” but this Court requires a determination whether this case is “appropriate” for the Court’s obligatory original jurisdiction. Illinois v. City of Milwaukee,
The State has demonstrated injury of “serious magnitude.” It contends, and provides uncontroverted affidavits to support, that application of § 103(j)(l) will “materially interfere with and infringe upon the authority of South Carolina to borrow funds.” Complaint 16. The authority the State claims has significant historical basis, see Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co.,
Similarly, the State qua State has demonstrated that it has no adequate alternative forum in which to raise its unique Tenth and Sixteenth Amendment claims. See Maryland v. Lousiana, supra, at 743, and n. 19. If the State issues bearer bonds and urges its purchasers to contest the legality of § 103(j)(l), it will suffer irremedial injury. The purchasers will inevitably demand higher interest rates as compensation for bearing the risk of future potential federal taxes. Conversely, if the State forsakes bearer bonds in favor of registered ones, it will bear the increased expense that issuers of registered bonds incur, and it will be unable ever to contest the constitutionality of § 103(j)(l). In short, the State will
Therefore, although great deference is due the longstanding congressional policy against premature judicial interference with federal taxes, I believe it is proper to exercise the Court’s original jurisdiction under these unique circumstances. I emphasize both the unique circumstances of this case and the congressional policy against premature judicial interference because original litigants should not be misled into believing that this Court will become a haven for suits that cannot be entertained in lower courts with concurrent jurisdiction. The original jurisdiction is not a forum for litigating everyday tax concerns. Rather, it must be “sparingly” invoked. United States v. Nevada,
IV
I agree with the Court that the record is not sufficiently developed to permit us to address the merits and that a Special Master should be appointed. But I do not share its view
According to the affidavit of the Treasurer of South Carolina, the issuance of registered bonds will increase South Carolina’s interest costs by 0.25%. If the State were to continue to issue unregistered bonds, in the face of a ruling that § 103(j)(l) is valid, it estimates that it would have to pay between 3% and 5% more interest on its bonds to render them marketable. Counsel for South Carolina acknowledged at oral argument that since the effective date of § 103(j)(l) the State has issued fully registered bonds. Tr. of Oral Arg. 11.
See infra, at 390-392 (describing some exceptions); see also 26 U. S. C. §§ 6694(c), 7429(b).
Nontaxpaying associations of taxpayers and nontaxpayer organizations previously have attempted to avoid the congressional policy against judicial resolution of abstract tax controversies. See, e. g., Investment Annuity, Inc. v. Blumenthal, 197 U. S. App. D. C. 235,
See Act of Mar. 2, 1867, § 10, 14 Stat. 475.
The Act was introduced on March 1, 1867, by Senator Fessenden, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance, as an amendment to a section which made a taxpayer appeal to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue a condition precedent to suit for the recovery of taxes. See Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 2d Sess., 1933 (1867) (proposing amendment to the Act of July 13, 1866, ch. 184, § 19, 14 Stat. 152, presently codified at 26 U. S. C. § 6532(a)). The House initially objected to this amendment, see Cong. Globe, supra, at 1949, but the Senate would not recede, id., at 1950. After a conference, the House agreed to the amendment. See id., at 1968. No other recorded legislative history has been uncovered. See Note, En
The circumstances of the enactment do not, as the Court suggests, see ante, at 373-374, indicate that Congress meant to prohibit injunctions only where the statutory scheme provided an alternative remedy. Rather, “[s]ince equitable principles militating against the issuance of federal injunctions in tax cases existed independently of the Anti-Injunction Act, it is most unlikely that Congress would have chosen the stringent language of the Act if its purpose was merely to restate existing law and not to compel litigants to make use solely of the avenues of review opened by Congress.” Bob Jones University v. Simon,
In the revised statutes, the term “any” was added so that the statute read: “No suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court.” Snyder v. Marks,
I am at a complete loss to understand the Court’s assertion that the “language added to the Anti-Injunction Act by the 1966 amendment is . . . largely irrelevant to the issue before us today.” Ante, at 377. This conclusion follows only if the Court begins with a premise that it need pay no attention to either the 1966 amendment’s language or its legislative history.
Similarly, I do not believe, as the Court apparently does, see ante, at 377, n. 14, 377-378, n. 16, that statements in Bob Jones University v. Simon, supra, to the effect that the Act bars third-party suits, can or should be “disregarded.” Those statements were made after studious interpretation of both the original Act and its 1966 amendment. They reflect what I believe is the only faithful reading of the statute’s language and history.
Section 7478 does not directly apply to this case because it permits the Tax Court only to “make a declaration whether. . . prospective obligations are described in section 103(a).” The issue in this case involves the constitutionality of § 103(j)(l), not whether the bonds South Carolina desires to issue are “described in section 103(a).” Nevertheless, §7478 demonstrates that Congress believed that, prior to the enactment of that section, prospective issuers had no means to determine whether the interest on their bonds would be tax exempt. See S. Rep. No. 95-1263, pp. 150-151 (1978).
Our eases make clear that the constitutional nature of a challenge to a tax, as distinct from its probability of success, is of no consequence under the Anti-Injunction Act. See Alexander v. “Americans United” Inc.,
The Williams Packing exception is not applicable in this case. Though South Carolina’s Tenth Amendment and intergovernmental tax immunity claims are serious ones, we cannot say that there are no circumstances under which the Government could prevail. Thus, even if .§ 103(j)(1) would cause the State irreparable injury, South Carolina could not rely on the Williams Packing exception to invoke a court’s authority to review.
Taxing measures inevitably have a pecuniary impact on nontaxpayers who are linked to the persons against whom a tax is imposed. This Court has held that the indirect impacts of a tax, no matter how detrimental, generally do not invade any interest cognizable under the Due Process Clause. See, e. g., Bob Jones University v. Simon (indirect impact on charitable organization); United States v. American Friends Service Committee,
Article III provides, in pertinent part:
“Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. . . .
“Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;. . . —to Controversies . . . between a State and Citizens of another State ....
*396 “In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.”
See Note, The Original Jurisdiction of the United States Supreme Court, 11 Stan. L. Rev. 665, and n. 3 (1959).
The Solicitor General contends that the Act only fortuitously prevents the State of South Carolina from invoking its constitutional claims in this Court. See Supplemental Memorandum for Defendant 6-7. I do not think the fortuity of the effect saves the statute from constitutional doubt. As the Solicitor General himself reads the Act, it categorically prevents the State of South Carolina from maintaining a suit in this Court’s original jurisdiction, which is precisely what Art. Ill arguably entitles the State to do. The fact that a bond interest recipient can litigate the constitutionality of § 103(j)(1) in due course, see id., at 7, does not mitigate an otherwise effective denial of the original forum to the State of South Carolina.
In this vein, Congress itself has recently questioned its power to withdraw the Court’s original jurisdiction. In enacting the Diplomatic Relations Act of 1978, which changed the Court’s original jurisdiction of actions involving ambassadors or foreign states from exclusive to concurrent, the Senate Judiciary Committee concluded that “Congress may not deny to the Supreme Court jurisdiction which is expressly granted to it by the Constitution.” S. Rep. No. 95-1108, p. 6 (1978).
Since the Federal Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U. S. C. § 2201 (1982 ed.), which prohibits “any court of the United States” from declaring rights of parties “with respect to Federal taxes,” clearly has no jurisdictional effect, I have no occasion to address it at this time.
The Solicitor General concedes that, absent a bar from the Anti-Injunction Act, this case falls within the literal terms of the constitutional and statutory grant of original jurisdiction to this Court. See Supplemental Memorandum for Defendant 1-2.
Thus, where Congress expressly leaves open an alternative forum in which an original plaintiff can raise its claims, this Court will ordinarily presume that original jurisdiction is inappropriate. For example, where Congress allows the state, but not the federal, courts to issue injunctive relief, as Congress has done in the Norris-La Guardia Act, 29 U. S. C. § 104, and § 2283 of the Judicial Code, 28 U. S. C. § 2283, an original plaintiff could rarely, if ever, demand access to the obligatory original jurisdiction.
Concurrence Opinion
concurring in part and dissenting in part.
While I join Parts I and II of the Court’s opinion, I disagree with Part III. The Solicitor General has persuaded me that the Court should exercise its discretion to deny leave to file this complaint. We should do so not only because the proceeding can be conducted more expeditiously in another forum,
South Carolina claims that § 103(j)(l) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, 26 U. S. C. § 103(j)(l) (1982 ed.), as added
Although the State’s constitutional arguments are not stated in precisely this form, in essence it claims that the statute is invalid because it violates: (1) the doctrine of intergovernmental tax immunity; (2) the Tenth Amendment; and (3) the doctrine of National League of Cities v. Usery,
I — I
The origins of intergovernmental taxation immunity are found in McCulloch v. Maryland,
Therefore, the case upon which South Carolina relies is not McCulloch but Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co.,
“It is contended that although the property or revenues of the States or their instrumentalities cannot be taxed, nevertheless the income derived from state, county, and municipal securities can be taxed. But we think the same want of power to tax the property or revenues of the States or their instrumentalities exists in relation to a tax on the income from their securities, and for the same reason,, and that reason is given by Chief Justice Marshall in Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 449, 468, where he said: ‘The right to tax the contract to any extent, when made, must operate upon the power to borrow before it is exercised, and have a sensible influence on the contract. The extent of this influence, depends on the will of a distinct government. To any extent, however inconsiderable, it is a burthen on the operations of government. It may be carried to an extent which shall arrest them entirely. . . . The tax on government stock is thought by this court to be a tax on the contract, a tax on the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States, and consequently to be repugnant to the Constitution.’ Applying this language to these municipal securities, it is obvious that taxation on the interest therefrom would operate on the power to borrow before*406 it is exercised, and would have a sensible influence on the contract, and that the tax in question is a tax on the power of the States and their instrumentalities to borrow money, and consequently repugnant to the Constitution.”157 U. S., at 585-586 (ellipsis in original).
The theory employed in Pollock is what I shall refer to as the “intergovernmental burden” theory: even though a tax is not laid directly upon another government, if it has a “sensible influence” on the costs incurred by that government, it must fall. This theory is the only rationale offered by the Pollock Court for its decision, and it is on this theory that Pollock must stand or fall.
The precedential weight of Pollock was doubtful almost from the start. Within a generation Pollock was seemingly overruled by constitutional amendment. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, states: “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.” (Emphasis supplied.) This clear language makes the fact that income is derived from interest on state or local obligations constitutionally irrelevant.
Any doubt about the vitality of Pollock is dispelled by our subsequent cases. At every opportunity, this Court has rejected the intergovernmental burden theory.
In Metcalf & Eddy v. Mitchell,
*407 “[H]ere the tax is imposed on the income of one who is neither an officer nor an employee of government and whose only relation to it is that of contract, under which there is an obligation to furnish service, for practical purposes not unlike a contract to sell and deliver a commodity. The tax is imposed without discrimination upon income whether derived from services rendered to the state or services rendered to private individuals. In such a situation it cannot be said that the tax is imposed upon an agency of government in any technical sense, and the tax cannot be deemed to be an interference with government, or an impairment of the efficiency of its agencies in any substantial way.” Id., at 524-525.4
Thus, the conceptual basis for Pollock had been undermined. A burden on the State imposed by taxing those who contract with it was no longer sufficient to invalidate a tax; the theory that a State’s contracts could not be taxed which the Court had relied upon in Pollock was no longer good law.
“any allowance of a tax immunity for the protection of state sovereignty is at the expense of the sovereign power of the nation to tax. Enlargement of the one involves diminution of the other. When enlargement proceeds beyond the necessity of protecting the state, the burden of the immunity is thrown upon the national government with benefit only to a privileged class of taxpayers. . . . [I]f every federal tax which is laid on some new form of state activity, or whose economic burden reaches in some measure the state or those who serve it, were to be set aside as an infringement of state sovereignty, it is evident that a restriction on the national power, devised only as a shield to protect the states from curtailment of the essential operations of government which they have exercised from the beginning, would become a ready means for striking down the taxing power of the nation.” Id., at 416-417.
The Court concluded by explicitly rejecting the intergovernmental burden theory:
“The state and national governments must co-exist. Each must be supported by taxation of those who are citizens of both. The mere fact that the economic burden of such taxes may be passed on to a state government and thus increase to some extent, here wholly conjectural, the expense of its operation, infringes no constitutional immunity. Such burdens are but normal incidents of the organization within the same territory of two governments, each possessed of the taxing power.” Id., at 422.
In Graves v. New York ex rel. O’Keefe,
“So much of the burden of a non-discriminatory general tax upon the incomes of employees of a government, state or national, as may be passed on economically to that government, through the effect of the tax on the price level of labor or materials, is but the normal incident of the organization within the same territory of two governments, each possessing the taxing power. The burden, so far as it can be said to exist or to affect the government in any indirect or incidental way, is one which the Constitution presupposes, and hence it cannot rightly be deemed to be within an implied restriction upon the taxing power of the national and state governments which the. Constitution has expressly granted to one and has confirmed to the other.” Id., at 487.8
The intergovernmental burden theory was rejected about as clearly as possible in Alabama v. King & Boozer,
Perhaps the plainest explication of this Court’s position on state tax immunity is found in New York v. United States,
S. R. A., Inc. v. Minnesota,
Our cases thus demonstrate the insubstantiality of South Carolina’s claim. Under § 103(j)(l), South Carolina is not required to pay any federal tax at all. The tax is imposed not upon state property or revenues, but only upon persons with whom it contracts. Under the test adopted by a majority of the Court in New York v. United States, and followed since,
Even if there were enough left of Pollock to invalidate a federal tax that might cripple traditional state functions, the burden imposed on the State here is far from crushing. South Carolina estimates that if it must issue its bonds in registered form it will have to pay an additional one quarter of one percent interest on its bonds.
“Public bonds will not be put in an unfavorable position relatively by being subjected to taxes on the income. They will merely be deprived of an artificial advantage heretofore enjoyed, which however is not strictly necessary in all probability in order to give them a practical success on the financial markets of the country when offered at the same rates of interest that have usually been offered in the past.” Powell, Intergovernmental Tax Immunities, 8 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1213, 1214-1215 (1940).
In contrast to the slight burden alleged by South Carolina, the Federal Government’s interest in encouraging bearer bonds to be issued in registered form is substantial, as the Senate Report on this provision makes clear.
*417 “The Committee believes that a fair and efficient system of information reporting and withholding cannot be achieved with respect to interest-bearing obligations as long as a significant volume of long-term bearer instruments is issued. A system of book-entry registration will preserve the liquidity of obligations while requiring the creation of ownership records that can produce useful information reports with respect to both the payment of interest and the sale of obligations prior to maturity through brokers. Furthermore, registration -will reduce the ability of noncompliant taxpayers to conceal income and property from the reach of the income, estate, and gift taxes. Finally, the registration requirement may reduce the volume of readily negotiable substitutes for cash available to persons engaged in illegal activities.” S. Rep. No. 97-494, pt. 1, p. 242 (1982).
As this Court has previously held, the Constitution does not invalidate every burden on a State or locality created by federal taxation because such burdens are the “normal incident” of a system of dual sovereigns with dual taxing powers, which the Constitution envisions wall coexist. Surely it follows that the Constitution intended that the taxing power it gave the Federal Government not be undermined through the abuse engendered by bearer instruments. The burden imposed upon States and localities by efforts to eliminate such abuse is one necessary in a system committed to the efficacy of dual taxing authorities.
The fairness of this requirement is highlighted by the fact that § 103(j)(l) requires that federally issued bonds also be in registered form to be tax exempt. Even in the heyday of Pollock, the Court never held that the Federal Government impermissibly infringed state sovereignty by imposing a burden on the States that it also imposed on itself. If Congress has destroyed some protected concept of state sovereignty through § 103(j)(l), then it has destroyed the sovereignty of the United States as well.
South Carolina’s complaint alleges that § 103(j)(l) violates the Tenth Amendment. That Amendment provides:
“The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”
In order to bring its challenge within the terms of that Amendment, South Carolina alleges:
“The Congress of the United States has no power whatsoever to impose an income tax upon the interest paid by South Carolina to its lenders.” Complaint ¶ 9.
This allegation is inconsistent with the plain language of the Constitution itself. Article I, §8, specifically delegates to Congress the “Power To lay and collect Taxes,” and the Sixteenth Amendment removes any possible ambiguity concerning the scope of the power exercised by Congress in this case. The cases I have discussed above confirm this point.
Because the power to tax private income has been expressly delegated to Congress, the Tenth Amendment has no application to this case.
Ill
Finally, South Carolina relies on National League of Cities v. Usery,
“We express no view as to whether different results might obtain if Congress seeks to affect integral operations of state governments by exercising authority granted it under other sections of the Constitution such*419 as the spending power, Art. I, § 8, cl. 1, or § 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment.” Id., at 852, n. 17.
By its express terms, therefore, the National League of Cities case has no application to South Carolina’s challenge to an exercise of the federal taxing power.
In sum, I can see no basis on which South Carolina could prevail in this case, even accepting its allegations and offers of proof for all they are worth. We do South Carolina no favor by permitting it to file and litigate a claim on which it has no chance of prevailing. At the same time, the Court’s decision to permit South Carolina to file this claim is an unwise use of its scarce resources. Accordingly, I respectfully dissent from the Court’s decision to grant South Carolina’s motion for leave to file its complaint.
As the Solicitor General points out: “[T]his case is particularly inappropriate for the exercise of this Court’s discretionary original jurisdiction. First, given the demands on this Court’s original and appellate docket, it seems plain that a district court could hear the ease more promptly. This is especially true in light of the fact that to support its claim, South Carolina would undoubtedly seek to introduce evidence of the actual burden imposed upon it by the federal tax statute. Such a proceeding could be more expeditiously conducted at the usual trial court level by a federal district court.” Brief in Opposition 12. See United States v. Nevada,
Moreover, McCulloch dealt with a tax imposed directly upon a governmental body, rather than a tax imposed upon an individual’s income derived from his dealings with a governmental body.
The Court easily dismissed the conceptual basis for the intergovernmental burden theory, correctly observing that every exercise of taxing power necessarily creates such a burden.
“In a broad sense, the taxing power of either [the state or federal] government, even when exercised in a manner admittedly necessary and*407 proper, unavoidably has some effect upon the other. The burden of federal taxation necessarily sets an economic limit to the practical operation of the taxing power of the states, and vice versa. Taxation by either the state or the federal government affects in some measure the cost of operation of the other.”269 U. S., at 523 .
In James v. Dravo Contracting Co.,
This was made even clearer in Helvering v. Mountain Producers Corp.,
“[Ijmmunity from non-discriminatory taxation sought by a private person for his property or gains because he is engaged in operations under a gov*408 ernment contract or lease cannot be supported by merely theoretical conceptions of interference with the functions of government. Regard must be had to substance and direct effects. And where it merely appears that one operating under a government contract or lease is subjected to a tax with respect to his profits on the same basis as others who are engaged in similar businesses, there is no sufficient ground for holding that the effect upon the Government is other than indirect and remote.” Id., at 386-387.
See also Helvering v. Bankline Oil Co.,
“In sustaining the immunity from state taxation, the opinion of the Court, by Chief Justice Marshall, recognized a clear distinction between the extent of the power of a state to tax national banks and that of the national government to tax state instrumentalities. He was careful to point out not only that the taxing power of the national government is supreme, by reason of the constitutional grant, but that in laying a federal tax on state instrumentalities the people of the states, acting through their representatives, are laying a tax on their own institutions and consequently are subject to political restraints which can be counted on to prevent abuse. State taxation of national instrumentalities is subject to no such restraint, for the people outside the state have no representatives who participate in the legislation; and in a real sense, as to them, the taxation is without representation. The exercise of the national taxing power is thus subject to a safeguard which does not operate when a state undertakes to tax a national instrumentality.”
Justice Frankfurter, in his separate opinion, explained how state immunity from taxation had been derived incorrectly from dicta in McCulloch. “Partly as a flourish of rhetoric and partly because the intellectual fashion of the times indulged a free use of absolutes, Chief Justice Marshall gave currency to the phrase that ‘the power to tax involves the power to destroy.’ This dictum was treated as though it were a constitutional mandate. . . . The seductive cliche that the power to tax involves the power to destroy was fused with another assumption, likewise not to be found in the Constitution itself, namely the doctrine that the immunities are correlative — because the existence of the national government implies immunities from state taxation, the existence of state governments implies equivalent immunities from federal taxation. . . .
“All these doctrines of intergovernmental immunity have until recently been moving in the realm of what Lincoln called ‘pernicious abstractions.’ The web of unreality spun from Marshall’s famous dictum was brushed away by one stroke of Mr. Justice Holmes’s pen: ‘The power to tax is not the power to destroy while this Court sits.’ Panhandle Oil Co. v. Mississippi,277 U. S. 218 , 223 (dissent). Failure to exempt public functionaries from the universal duties of citizenship to pay for the costs of government was hypothetically transmuted into hostile action of one government against the other. A succession of decisions thereby withdrew from the taxing power of the States and Nation a very considerable range of wealth without regard to the actual workings of our federalism, and this, too, when the financial needs of all governments began steadily to mount.”306 U. S., at 489-490 (concurring opinion) (citation and footnote omitted).
Justice Frankfurter later added: “Chief Justice Marshall spoke at a time when social complexities did not so clearly reveal as now the practical limitations of a rhetorical absolute. ... To press a juristic principle designed for the practical affairs of government to abstract extremes is neither sound logic nor good sense. And this Court is under no duty to make law less than sound logic and good sense.” New York v. United States,326 U. S. 572 , 576-577 (1946) (opinion of Frankfurter, J.).
See also Sims v. United States,
“So far as such a non-discriminatory state tax upon the contractor enters into the cost of the materials to the Government, that is but a normal incident of the organization within the same territory of two independent taxing sovereignties. The asserted right of the one to be free of taxation by the other does not spell immunity from paying the added costs, attributable to the taxation of those who furnish supplies to the Government and who have been granted no tax immunity.”
While the Court, for a time, did continue to cite Pollock either in dicta, see Indian Motorcycle Co. v. United States,
These Justices made it clear that the immunity doctrine applies only when the State itself is the taxpayer.
“If the phrase ‘non-discriminatory tax’ is to be taken in its long accepted meaning as referring to a tax laid on a like subject matter, without regard to the personality of the taxpayer, whether a State, a corporation or a private individual, it is plain that there may be non-discriminatory taxes which, when laid on a State, would nevertheless impair the sovereign status of the State quite as much as a like tax imposed by a State on property or activities of the national government. This is not because the tax can be regarded as discriminatory but because a sovereign government is the taxpayer, and the tax, even though non-discriminatory, may be regarded as infringing its sovereignty.”326 U. S., at 587 (emphasis supplied) (citation omitted).
In more recent cases we have found immunity only where the governmental entity itself is legally obligated to bear the costs of the tax. See United States v. New Mexico,
“To say that the payment of the purchase price is a necessary condition precedent to the loss of federal immunity is to make the rule too mechanical. It should be sufficiently flexible to subject real private rights, disentangled from federal policies, to state taxation.”
The Court briefly disposed of the intergovernmental burden theory: “There is a suggestion that to hold United States property subject to state taxation pending the completion of payment will injuriously affect its sal-ability and therefore interfere with the Government’s handling of its affairs. Our recent cases have disposed of this economic argument in a way which is contrary to petitioner’s contention.” Id., at 570.
“It is undoubtedly true, as the Government points out, that it will not be able to secure as high rentals if lessees are taxed for using its property. But. . . the imposition of an increased financial burden on the Government does not, by itself, vitiate a state tax.”
A host of commentators agree. See, e. g., Kirby, State and Local Bond Interest, in 1 House Committee on Ways and Means, Tax Revision Compendium 679 (Comm. Print 1959); Senate Special Committee on Taxation of Governmental Securities and Salaries, Taxation of Governmental Securities and Salaries, S. Rep. No. 2140, 76th Cong., 3d Sess., pt. 1, pp. 8-16, 25-28 (1940); U. S. Dept, of Justice, Taxation of Government Bondholders and Employees: The Immunity Rule and the Sixteenth Amendment (1938); Boudin, The Taxation of Governmental Instrumental-ities, Part Two, 22 Geo. L. J. 254 (1934); Brown, Intergovernmental Tax Immunity: Do We Need a Constitutional Amendment?, 25 Wash. U. L. Q. 153 (1940); Gardner, Tax Immune Bonds, 8 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1200 (1940); Philipsborn & Cantrill, Immunity from Taxation of Governmental Instrumentalities, 26 Geo. L. J. 543 (1938); Rakestraw, The Reciprocal Rule of Governmental Tax Immunity — A Legal Myth, 11 Federal B. J. 3 (1950); Ratchford, Intergovernmental Tax Immunities in the United States, 6 National Tax J. 305 (1953); Watkins, The Power of the State and Federal Governments to Tax One Another, 24 Va. L. Rev. 475 (1938); Federal Legislation, Taxability of Government-Bond Interest, 27 Geo. L. J. 768 (1939); Note, The Passing of Intergovernmental Tax Immunity, 33 Ill. L. Rev. 962 (1939); Note, Constitutional and Legislative Bases of Intergovernmental Tax Immunities, 51 Yale L. J. 482 (1942).
As an example, South Carolina states that on November 9,1982, it sold $115 million in general obligation bonds. Over the life of these bonds South Carolina will pay $97,247,668 in interest. If the bonds were issued
Amici Texas et al. have submitted affidavits which also indicate only that they will pay slightly higher interest charges if they must issue bonds in registered form. No allegations are made that serious disruptions in the ability of States and localities to provide essential services will result.
To come within that case, an exercise of Commerce Clause power must (1) regulate the States as States, (2) address indisputable attributes of state sovereignty, and (3) directly impair the traditional functions of the States. EEOC v. Wyoming,