OPINION OF THE COURT
I.
The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (25 USC § 2701 et seq. [hereinafter IGRA.]) was enacted in 1988 for the declared purpose of “providing] a statutory basis for the operation of gaming by Indian tribes as a means of promoting tribal economic development, self-sufficiency, and strong tribal governments” (25 USC § 2702 [1]), while at the same time “providing] a statutory basis for the regulation of gaming by an Indian tribe adequate to shield it from organized crime and other corrupting influences, to ensure that the Indian tribe is the primary beneficiary of the gaming operation, and to assure that gaming is conducted fairly and honestly by both the operator
Class III gaming activities are permitted on Indian lands only if “located in a State that permits such gaming for any purpose by any person, organization, or entity, and * * * conducted in conformance with a Tribal-State compact entered into by the Indian tribe and the State” (25 USC § 2710 [d] [1] [B], [C]; see, Rumsey Indian Rancheria of Wintun Indians v Wilson,
In 1993, then-Governor Mario Cuomo entered into a Tribal-State compact with the St. Regis Mohawk Tribe (hereinafter the Tribe) which allowed the Tribe to operate gambling casinos. The Tribe opened the Akwesasne Mohawk Casino on its reservation near Hogansburg in Franklin County on April 10, 1999. On May 27, 1999, defendant Governor George Pataki and the Tribe entered into an amendment to the compact to permit the operation of electronic gaming devices, and the Tribe began the operation of these devices the following day. In addition, on October 29, 1999, the Tribe sought review by the Department of the Interior of the Tribe’s' application to acquire the property of the former Monticello Raceway in the Village of Monticello, Sullivan County, for the purpose of establishing a class III gaming establishment there. Following such review, the Secretary of the Interior determined that a gaming
On September 23, 1999, plaintiffs in action No. 1 (hereinafter the Saratoga plaintiffs) commenced an action in Supreme Court, Albany County, against the Governor, the State Racing and Wagering Board, and defendant Judith Hard, a former Counsel to the Governor who signed the May 27, 1999 amendment on behalf of the State. The amended complaint alleges that the Governor lacked authority to execute the compact or the amendment and that the types of gambling contemplated by both of them are prohibited by the New York Constitution, criminal statutes and public policy as enunciated by the Legislature. Plaintiffs therefore seek to nullify the compact and the amendment and to enjoin defendants from further implementing either document, including the expansion of the gambling activity onto other sites. The next day, plaintiffs in action No. 2 (hereinafter the Wright plaintiffs) commenced an action in Supreme Court, New York County, against the Governor and the State seeking similar declaratory and injunctive relief. Defendant Village of Monticello moved in action No. 1 to intervene as a defendant and to consolidate the two actions. On November 18, 1999, Supreme Court granted Monticello’s motion to intervene and consolidated the actions, with venue in Albany County.
Defendants
II.
We are faced with the question of whether the Tribe’s sovereign immunity from suit can be invoked by a non-Indian party to foreclose judicial review of the authority of the Governor, acting without legislative approval, to enter into a compact with the Tribe. We conclude that Supreme Court abused its discretion in dismissing the actions based on plaintiffs’ inability to join the Tribe as a defendant. The general rule is that “[p]ersons who ought to be parties if complete relief is to be accorded between the persons who are parties to the action or who might be inequitably affected by a judgment in the action shall be made plaintiffs or defendants” (CPLR 1001 [a]). A different rule applies, however, in cases such as this one
First, there is no question that plaintiffs have no other effective remedy if the action is dismissed for nonjoinder. As already noted, the Tribe is immune from suit in both State and Federal courts. In addition, the State is immune from suit in Federal court pursuant to the 11th Amendment of the US Constitution (see, Seminole Tribe v Florida,
It is noteworthy, We believe, that a number of other jurisdictions have considered the question of whether a governor has the authority to bind a State to an Indian gaming compact, and in every State whose constitution does not grant residual powers to the executive, the litigation resulted in a declaration that the compact is void and unenforceable absent legislative concurrence (see, Jicarilla Apache Tribe v Kelly,
We are also mindful of defendants’ arguments that (1) several bills have been introduced in the State Legislature that would have explicitly prevented the Governor from entering into gaming compacts negotiated pursuant to IGRA and that none have become law, and (2) chapter 264 of the Laws of 1993 — authorizing the State Police access to criminal history records of persons applying to engage in activities authorized by IGRA — demonstrates that the Legislature has adopted the compact entered into by the Governor. Given the various arguments and in view of the considerable uncertainty concerning the Governor’s authority to bind the State to tribal gaming compacts and the types of gaming that may be legally authorized in New York, the public interest would be best served by a determination of this litigation on the merits.
Nor are we persuaded that great prejudice would result from nonjoinder or that an effective judgment cannot be rendered in the Tribe’s absence. Defendants’ predictions of dire and irreparable economic injury to the Tribe in the event that judgment is granted in favor of plaintiffs fails to take account of the relief that is actually sought by plaintiffs or the fact that invalidation of the compact and the. amendment would result
Further, in the event that the present actions were to result in a declaration of the invalidity of the compact and amendment and such declaration were to serve as a predicate for a future action threatening more concrete injury to the Tribe, perhaps a more compelling case for dismissal based on nonjoinder could be made in such action. The mere possibility of such further action provides an insufficient basis for dismissal in this action, however. For similar reasons, we also reject defendant’s contention that no effective judgment can be rendered in the absence of the Tribe. Contrary to defendants’ assertion, plaintiffs do not seek to enjoin the Tribe from conducting gambling at its casino. With the exception of the Wright plaintiffs’ attack on the amendment, all affirmative relief demanded by plaintiffs is prospective only.
We are also unpersuaded that the Tribe’s interests are not being adequately represented by defendants. A person might
Based upon the foregoing, we conclude that the Tribe is not an indispensable party and that the actions may proceed in its absence. Rather than remit the matter to Supreme Court for consideration of the additional issues raised on the motions, we will endeavor to expedite a determination of the actions on the merits by resolving them ourselves.
III.
A plaintiff has standing to maintain an action when that plaintiff has suffered an injury in fact and such injury falls within the zone of interests to be protected by the statute or constitutional provision involved (see, Society of Plastics Indus. v County of Suffolk,
First, we agree with plaintiffs that they have standing under State Finance Law § 123-b, which provides standing for citizen taxpayers in a suit concerning the wrongful misappropriation, expenditure or illegal disbursement of State funds (see, State
Next, we address defendants’ argument that the plaintiff organizations lack standing. Organizational standing requirements are intended to “ensure that the requisite injury is established and that the organization is the proper party to seek redress for that injury” (Society of Plastics Indus. v County of Suffolk, supra, at 775). An organization seeking standing must establish that (1) one or more of its members has been harmed, (2) the interests it asserts are germane to its purposes so as to demonstrate that it is an appropriate representative of those interests, and (3) the case would not require the participation of individual members (see, Rudder v Pataki, supra, at 278).
New Yorkers for Constitutional Freedoms is a not-for-profit corporation representing approximately 1,650 churches and groups throughout the State whose individual members are opposed to casino gambling and support the constitutional operation of government. The Coalition Against Casino Gambling is a not-for-profit association whose individual members reside primarily in the Catskills and are opposed to casino gambling in that region. Similarly, the Western New York Coalition
We agree with defendants, however, that the Saratoga County Chamber of Commerce does not have standing. That organization asserts that it represents over 2,300 businesses and professional organizations whose economic livelihood depends on pari-mutuel bettors at the racetrack, which bettors may be lured away by the Tribe’s existing casino and the casino planned for Monticello. In our view, the harm claimed is too speculative and attenuated to constitute an injury in fact (see, Rudder v Pataki, supra, at 280). In any event, the constitutional provisions relied upon, relating to separation of powers and gambling, were certainly not intended for the protection of competing gambling facilities (see, Matter of Troy Ambulance Serv. v New York State Dept. of Health,
There is also no merit to the Saratoga plaintiffs’ contention that they have voter standing because, as voters, they are entitled to the protection of the State’s constitutional provisions regarding gambling, which can only be changed by a referendum approved by the State’s voters. Voter standing arises when the right to vote is eliminated or votes are diluted (see, Rudder v Pataki, supra, at 281; see also, Schulz v State of New York,
Finally, plaintiffs Frank Padavan and William Parment and the Wright plaintiffs seek standing as legislators but have not shown a particularized injury or established the absence of adequate political remedies. Indeed, their claim of standing is based on a loss of political power rather than the assertion
IV.
We also reject the contention that the actions are preempted by Federal law. Although it cannot be denied that IGRA is a Federal statute and that the regulation of Indian affairs is generally a Federal matter, we conclude that the narrow issues raised in these complaints are not preempted by Federal law. “IGRA says nothing specific about how we determine whether a state and tribe have entered into a valid compact. State law must determine whether a state has validly bound itself to a compact” (Pueblo of Santa Ana v Kelly,
Nor are we persuaded that the actions are barred by the Statute of Limitations or laches. The four-month limitations period of CPLR 217, which is pressed by defendants, would ap
Finally, we agree with defendants that so much of the claims as seeks to restrain the development of a gambling casino at the Monticello site is not ripe for review. “Where the harm sought to be enjoined is contingent upon events which may not come to pass, the claim to enjoin the purported hazard is nonjusticiable as wholly speculative and abstract” (Matter of New York State Inspection, Sec. & Law Enforcement Empls. v Cuomo,
To summarize, we have determined the following: (1) the Tribe is not an indispensable party and the actions may proceed in its absence; (2) plaintiffs have standing under State Finance Law § 123-b (1), three of the plaintiff organizations have standing and both actions may therefore proceed; plaintiffs have neither voter standing nor standing as legislators, however; (3) the narrow issues raised in these complaints are not preempted by Federal law; (4) the actions are not barred by either the Statute of Limitations or laches; (5) that
In view of the foregoing, we conclude that Supreme Court should have denied all of the parties’ motions except so much of defendants’ motions as sought to dismiss the branch of the complaints addressed to the proposed Monticello casino and the part of defendants’ motion dismissing the complaint by Saratoga County Chamber of Commerce for lack of standing.
Cardona, P. J., Crew III, Spain and Lahtinen, JJ., concur.
Ordered that the judgment is reversed, on the law, without costs, defendants’ motions to dismiss denied except to the extent that so much of the complaints as seeks to enjoin the establishment of a gambling casino in the Village of Monticello, Sullivan County, is dismissed as premature, and motions granted as to plaintiff Saratoga County Chamber of Commerce; and matter remitted to the Supreme Court for further proceedings not inconsistent with this Court’s decision.
Notes
. “Defendants” shall refer to all defendants in both actions, except Monticello.
. It is undisputed that plaintiffs cannot obtain jurisdiction over the Tribe because, as a sovereign Indian nation, it is entitled to immunity from suit in State court (see, Matter of Ransom v St. Regis Mohawk Educ. & Community Fund,