TERRY MADDEN, Plаintiff and Respondent, v. KAISER FOUNDATION HOSPITALS et al., Defendants and Appellants.
L.A. No. 30526
Supreme Court of California
Aug. 10, 1976.
17 Cal.3d 699
Thelen, Marrin, Johnson & Bridges, James W. Baldwin and Curtis A. Cole for Defendants and Appellants.
Harney, Bambic & Moore, Richard B. Wolfe and David M. Harney for Plaintiff and Respondent.
West & Girardi and Thomas V. Girardi as Amici Curiae on behalf of Plaintiff and Respondent.
TOBRINER, J.-Defendants appeal from an order denying enforcement of an arbitration provision in a medical services contract entered into between the Board of Administration of the State Employees Retirement System (hereafter board) and defendant Kaiser Foundation Health Plan.1 Plaintiff, a state employee who enrolled under the Kaiser plan, contends that she is not bound by the provision for arbitration. The instant appeal presents the issue whether an agent or representative, contracting for medical services on behalf of a group of employees, has implied authority to agree to arbitration of malpractice claims of enrolled employees arising under the contract.
We shall explain that although the courts in the past regarded arbitration as an unusual and suspect procedure, they now recognize it as an accepted method of settlement of disputes. Since
We shall point out that although plaintiff relies upon principles pertaining to adhesion contracts to bar enforcement of the arbitration provision, such precepts only affect contractual provisions imposed by the stronger party upon the weaker which unfairly limit the duties or liability of the stronger. They do not apply to the arbitration provision in this case, a product of negotiations between parties possessing parity of bargaining strength, providing merely for a forum for enforcement of the rights of enrolled employees rather than a substantive limitation of them.
We shall reject, finally, plaintiff‘s contention that the arbitration provision violates constitutional and statutory provisions protecting the right to trial by jury. Persons entering into arbitration agreements know and intend that disputes arising under such agreements will be resolved by arbitration, not by juries; neither decision nor policy calls for an explicit waiver of the parties’ right to jury trial or for express conformance with
Accordingly, we reverse the order оf the trial court and direct that court to grant Kaiser‘s motion to compel arbitration.
1. Summary of proceedings.
In 1945 the Legislature enacted the State Employees’ Retirement Act (
In 1961, when California enacted the Meyers-Geddes Employee‘s Medical and Hospital Care Act (
Pursuant to the provisions of the act, the board negotiated an agreement with Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, a corporation, to provide medical, hospital, and related health care bеnefits to state employees and their families. The agreement states that it is “subject to amendment . . . by mutual agreement between [Kaiser] and . . . Board without the consent or concurrence of the Members. By electing medical and hospital coverage pursuant to this Agreement, or accepting benefits hereunder, all Members . . . agree to all terms, conditions and provisions hereof.”
When plaintiff first enrolled under the Kaiser plan in 1965, it did not contain an arbitration provision. On April 1, 1971, however, the Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, anticipating the inclusion of an arbitration provision, mailed to all subscribers a brochure which, in describing the terms and benefits of the plan, stated that claims involving professional liability and personal injury must be submitted to arbitration. Shortly thereafter, on May 28, 1971, the Kaiser Foundation Health Plan and the board amended their contract in several respects and included a provision for binding arbitration of “any claim arising from the violation of a legal duty incident to this Agreement.”2
On August 1, 1971, plaintiff underwent a hysterectomy at the Kaiser Hospital in Los Angeles. During the surgery, her bladder was perforated; blood transfusions were required; plaintiff thereafter contracted serum hepatitis.3
By order of April 22, 1974, the trial court denied the motion to stay the action and compel arbitration. Kaiser appeals from that order.4
2. The board, as agent for the employees, had implied authority to provide for arbitration of malpractice claims.
This preliminary doctrinal recitation sets the stage for the principal issue of this appeal: whether the board, as agent of the employees, had implied authority to agree to a contract which provided for arbitration of all disputes, including malpractice claims, arising under that contract. That issue turns on the application of
In Crofoot v. Blair Holdings Corp. (1953) 119 Cal.App.2d 156, 183-184 [260 P.2d 156],7 Justice Peters summarized the evolution of legal attitudes toward arbitration. “Arbitration has had a long and troubled history. The early common law courts did not favor arbitration, and greatly limited the powers of arbitrators. But in recent times a great change in attitude and policy has taken place. Arbitrations are now usually covered by statutory law, as they are in California. Such statutes evidence a strong public policy in favor of arbitrations, which policy has frequently been approved and enforced by the courts.” Subsequent decisions confirm the self-evident fact that arbitration has become an accepted and favored method of resolving disputes (Ware v. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc. (1972) 24 Cal.App.3d 35, 43 [100 Cal.Rptr. 791]; Federico v. Frick (1970) 3 Cal.App.3d 872, 875 [84 Cal.Rptr. 74]; Roberts v. Fortune Homes, Inc. (1966) 240 Cal.App.2d 238, 244 [49 Cal.Rptr. 429]), praised by the courts as an expeditious and
The transformation of legislative and judicial attitudes toward arbitration has encouraged a dramatic development in the use of this procedure. A 1952 study estimated that “aside from personal injury cases and cases in which the government is a party, more than 70 percent of the total civil litigation is decided through arbitration rather than by the courts” (Mentschikoff, The Significance of Arbitration-A Preliminary Inquiry (1952) 17 Law & Contemp. Prob. 698). In the following decades arbitration further expanded its role to encompass in certain circumstances disputes requiring evaluation of personal injury claims: California and many other states now require arbitration of uninsured motorist claims (see
Plaintiff nevertheless recites judicial authority holding that a provision for arbitration frames an extraordinary method of resolving disputes and that consequently the authority of an agent to agree to arbitration must be specially conferred. The only decisions which support that proposition, however, are cases from other states which date from an era of judicial hostility to arbitration. (Pope v. Wheatley (Tex.Civ.App. 1932) 54 S.W.2d 846; Dunn v. Moore (1938) 22 Tenn.App. 412 [123 S.W.2d 1095]; Manufacturers’ & Builders’ Fire Ins. Co. v. Mullen (1896) 48 Neb. 620 [67 N.W. 445].)8 That judicial era has long since receded into a remote past. (See Gear v. Webster, supra, 258 Cal.App.2d 57, 61; Henderson, Contractual Problems in the Enforcement of Agreements to Arbitrate Medical Malpractice (1972) 58 Va.L.Rev. 947, 956.) The agent today who consents to arbitration follows a “proper and usual” practice “for effecting the purpose” of the agency; he merely agrees that disputes arising under the contract be resolved by a common, expeditious, and judicially favored method.
The matter becomes even clearer if we narrow our focus to arbitration of disputes arising under group contracts. In collective bargaining agreements, which, like the present contract, are negotiated by elected representatives on behalf of a group of employees, arbitration has become a customary means of resolving disputes. (See, e.g., Fire Fighters Union v. City of Vallejo (1974) 12 Cal.3d 608, 622 [116 Cal.Rptr. 507, 526 P.2d 971]; Charles J. Rounds Co. v. Joint Council of Teamsters No. 42 (1971) 4 Cal.3d 888 [95 Cal.Rptr. 53, 484 P.2d 1397]; Posner v. Grunwald-Marx, Inc., supra, 56 Cal.2d 169, 180.) Negotiators have invariably accepted without question the authority of the union representative to agree to such arbitration provisions. (See
Finally, we observe the growing interest in and use of arbitration to cope with the increasing volume of medical malpractice claims. (See Judicial Council Study, op. cit., supra, pp. 70-71 and references there cited; Butler, Arbitration: An Answer to the Medical Malpractice Crisis (Sept.-Oct. 1975) 9 Beverly Hills Bar J. 41; Henderson, op. cit., supra, 58 Va.L.Rev. 947; Note, Rx for New York‘s Medical Malpractice Crisis (1975) 11 Colum.J.L. & Soc. Prob. 467, 500-503.)9 The authority of an agent to agree to the arbitration of such claims finds an illustration in our decision in Doyle v. Giuliucci (1965) 62 Cal.2d 606 [43 Cal.Rptr. 697, 401 P.2d 1]. In Doyle, the father of an injured minor entered into a contract with the Ross-Loos Medical Group which provided for arbitration of tort and contract claims arising under the contract. In an unanimous opinion authored by Chief Justice Traynor, we held that the minor was bound by
We do not believe Doyle can be distinguished from the instant case because it involves a parent contracting on behalf of a child instead of an agent contracting on behalf of its principal. Both parent and agent serve as fiduciaries with limited powers, and if, as Doyle holds, the implied authority of a parent includes the power to agree to аrbitration of the child‘s malpractice claims, we perceive no reason why the implied authority of an agent should not similarly include the power to agree to arbitration of the principal‘s malpractice claims.
We therefore conclude that an agent or other fiduciary who contracts for medical treatment on behalf of his beneficiary retains the authority to enter into an agreement providing for arbitration of claims for medical malpractice.11
Plaintiff asserts that she was unaware of the arbitration amendment and should not be bound by its terms. Although she must acknowledge the general rule that one who assents to a contract is bound by its provisions and cannot cоmplain of unfamiliarity with the language of the instrument (see Federico v. Frick, supra, 3 Cal.App.3d 872, 875; 1 Witkin, Summary of Cal. Law (8th ed. 1973) p. 93 and cases there cited), she points to an exception to that rule in the instance of a contract of adhesion.
As we have frequently explained, courts will not enforce provisions in adhesion contracts which limit the duties or liability of the stronger party unless such provisions are “conspicuous, plain and clear” (Steven v. Fidelity & Casualty Co. (1962) 58 Cal.2d 862, 878 [27 Cal.Rptr. 172, 377 P.2d 284]) and will not operate to defeat the reasonable expectations of the parties (see Atlantic Nat. Ins. Co. v. Armstrong (1966) 65 Cal.2d 100, 112 [52 Cal.Rptr. 569, 416 P.2d 801]).
Contending that the Kaiser contract is one of adhesion, plaintiff argues that the courts should refuse to enforce its arbitration clause on the ground that the clause is inconspicuous, unexpected, and disrupts the members’ reasonable expectation that a malpractice claim will be adjudicated by trial by jury. We explain our reason for concluding that the principles governing adhesion contracts do not cover the present case.
The concept that a contract of adhesion should be interpreted and enforced differently from an ordinary contract has evolved from cases which have involved contractual provisions drafted and imposed by a party enjoying superior bargaining strength-provisions which unexpectedly and often unconscionably limit the obligations and liability of the party drafting the contract. (See Neal v. State Farm Ins. Cos. (1961) 188 Cal.App.2d 690 [10 Cal.Rptr. 781]; Steven v. Fidelity & Casualty Co., supra, 58 Cal.2d 862; Tunkl v. Regents of University of California (1963) 60 Cal.2d 92 [32 Cal.Rptr. 33, 383 P.2d 441, 6 A.L.R.3d 693]; Gray v. Zurich Insurance Co. (1966) 65 Cal.2d 263 [54 Cal.Rptr. 104, 419 P.2d 168]; Schmidt v. Pacific Mut. Life Ins. Co. (1969) 268 Cal.App.2d 735 [74 Cal.Rptr. 367].) The present case resembles those precedents only in that the members were offered the Kaiser plan on a “take it or leave it” basis without opportunity for individual bargaining. The Kaiser contract, however, lacks those oppressive features which have characterized the contracts adjudicated in the prior decisions.
In many cases of adhesion contracts, the weaker party lacks not only the opportunity to bargain but also any realistic opportunity to look elsewhere for a more favorable contract; he must either adhere to the standardized agreement or forego the needed service. (See, e.g., Tunkl v. Regents of University of California, supra, 60 Cal.2d 92.) Plaintiff, on the other hand, enjoyed the opportunity to select from among several medical plans negotiated and offered by the board, some of which did not include arbitration provisions, or to contract individually for medical care.
Finally, in all prior contract of adhesion cases, the courts have concerned themselves with weighted contractual provisions which served to limit the obligations or liability of the stronger party. The arbitration amendment, by way of contrast, bears equally on Kaiser and the members. It does not detract from Kaiser‘s duty to use reasonable care in treating patients, nor limit its liability for breach of this duty, but merely substitutes one forum for another. (See Doyle v. Giuliucci, supra, 62 Cal.2d 606, 610.)
Although plaintiff asserts that the arbitration amendment promotes Kaiser‘s interest to the disadvantage of the members enrolled under the Kaiser plan, she overlooks the benefits of the arbitral forum. The speed and economy of arbitration, in contrast to the expense and delay of jury trial, could prove helpful to all parties; the simplified procedures and relaxed rules of evidence in arbitration may aid an injured plaintiff in prеsenting his case. Plaintiffs with less serious injuries, who cannot afford the high litigation expenses of court or jury trial, disproportionate to the
To support her contract of adhesion argument, plaintiff points to Tunkl v. Regents of University of California, supra, 60 Cal.2d 92; that decision, however, serves instеad to illuminate by contrast the nonoppressive character of the contract in the present case. In Tunkl, defendant hospital presented to all incoming patients a document entitled “Conditions of Admission,” which provided that the patient release the hospital from liability for negligent or wrongful acts. We observed that the “would-be patient is in no position to reject the proffered agreement, to bargain with the hospital, or in lieu of agreement to find another hospital.” (60 Cal.2d at p. 102.) Thus, the patient had no realistic choice but to assent to a standardized agreement under which he waived his right to recover for negligently inflicted injuries.
As we have explained, plaintiff, in contrast to Tunkl, benefitted from the board‘s assertion of equal power on her behalf, enjoyed the opportunity to choose from among alternative medical plans, and waived nо substantive right. We conclude that Tunkl is not controlling in the instant setting; the principles of adhesion contracts, as elucidated and applied in Tunkl and the other cases we have cited, do not bar enforcement of terms of a negotiated contract which neither limit the liability of the stronger party nor bear oppressively upon the weaker. Accordingly, such principles do not bar enforcement of the arbitration amendment against plaintiff Madden.
4. Enforcement of the arbitration provision does not violate constitutional or statutory protections of the right to trial by jury.
Section 631, however, presupposes a pending action, and relates only to the manner in which a party to such action can waive his right to demand a jury trial instead of a court trial. It does not purport to prevent parties from avoiding jury trial by not submitting their controversy to a court of law in thе first instance. Indeed it has always been understood without question that parties could eschew jury trial either by settling the underlying controversy, or by agreeing to a method of resolving that controversy, such as arbitration, which does not invoke a judicial forum. Consequently when the Legislature enacted the specific language of the California Arbitration Act (
Plaintiff further contends that the arbitration provision in the Kaiser contract fails because it does not expressly waive the parties’ constitutional right to jury trial.12 But to predicate the legality of a consensual arbitration agreement upon the parties’ express waiver of jury trial would be as artificial as it would be disastrous.
5. Plaintiff cannot avoid arbitration with Kaiser by joining other parties as defendants in her malpractice suit.
Plaintiff contends that a stay of her action with respect to Kaiser will lead to piecemeal and protracted litigation because she has also named as defendants the two blood banks. We agree that plaintiff may properly join the blood banks as parties defendant (Landau v. Salam (1971) 4 Cal.3d 901 [95 Cal.Rptr. 46, 484 P.2d 1390]), but that right does not empower her to avoid her duty to arbitrate any dispute with Kaiser. We point out that under these circumstances, the trial court is not required to stay all proceedings against the defendants who are not entitled to arbitration; the court may, in its discretion, sever the action as to the blood banks or limit any stay to those issues subject to arbitration. (See
6. Conclusion.
Under the aegis of permissive legislation and favorable judicial decisions, arbitration has become a proper and usual means of resolving civil disputes, including disputes relating to medical malpractice. We should not now turn the judicial clock backwards to an era of hostility toward arbitration. We should not fetter that institution with artificial
We conclude that the trial court erred in denying Kaiser‘s motion to compel arbitration and in refusing to stay the action against Kaiser. The trial court‘s refusal to stay the action as to the blood bank defendants is not challenged on appeal, but the trial court may wish to reconsider its order with respect to those defendants in light of our disposition of Kaiser‘s appeal.
The order of April 22, 1974, denying Kaiser‘s motion to stay further proceedings and compel arbitration is reversed, and the cause remanded for further proceedings consistent with the views expressed herein. The appeal from the order of May 22, 1974, denying Kaiser‘s petition for reconsideration, is dismissed.
Wright, C. J., McComb, J., Sullivan, J., Clark, J., and Files, J.,* concurred.
MOSK, J.-I dissent.
The issue is relatively uncomplicated: may a party litigant who has neither agreed to arbitrate her claim, nor authorized anyone to agree for her, be compelled to arbitrate because of defendant‘s unilateral demand for arbitration? The trial court properly responded in the negative.
The trial judge, with commendable candor, recited factual findings in connection with his order: (1) “the contract is of adhesion“; (2) “there is no showing that there was notice to the parties specifically involved in this claim . . . [There was a] lack of specific notice to the participant in the hospital plan.”
The policy declarations of the majority opinion in favor of arbitration, its criticism of “hostility to arbitration,” concern over “artificial requirements” fettering a valuable institution, and opposition to imposing “debilitating obstructions“-and other inordinately lyrical pronouncements of undeniable principles-obscure the majority‘s tendency to
A point at which to begin, in view of the trial court‘s factual finding, is the plaintiff‘s declaration under penalty of perjury in connection with defendant‘s motion to compel arbitration. Hеr declaration reads in haec verba:
“That I am the Plaintiff in the lawsuit entitled Madden vs. Kaiser Foundation Hospitals, et al., and presently reside in Los Angeles County. That I became a member of the California State Employees Association in, on or about July, 1956, and thereafter, by and through said organization, became covered by the Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, said coverage becoming effective on or about May 1, 1965. That at the time coverage with Kaiser commenced, I had no notice or knowledge whatsoever of any then-existing arbitration plan, nor was I given any notice nor did I have any knowledge that the plan would later be amended so as to compel arbitration of any claims against the hospital or the doctors who worked in the Kaiser Hospital, including the Southern California Permanente Medical Group. Furthermore, I have never received any notice nor did I gain any knowledge whatsoever that the plan which provided medical care by Kaiser, had been amended so as to compel arbitration of any claims against the hospital or the doctors who worked in the Kaiser Hospital, including the Southern California Permanente Medical Group. At no time prior to and including, May 28, 1971, did I receive any written or oral notification of any arbitration clause, nor did I receive any notification, oral or written, that I would participate in a deposit of $150.00 to initiate arbitration proceedings. At no time, have I ever entered into any bargaining agreement, or entered into any negotiations with anyone to contract away my basic civil right to a jury trial for claims arising out of malpractice committеd against myself. Had I been aware of any arbitration clause, or had I been given notice about any arbitration clause, either at the time I became covered by Kaiser or any time thereafter, I would never have committed myself to the care of these Defendants, nor would I have waived my right to a jury trial and simply agreed to arbitrate claims arising out of malpractice committed against myself.”
The trial court, as the ultimate authority on contested facts, believed the plaintiff and ruled in her favor on defendant‘s motion. As a reviewing court, we must accept the foregoing declaration and all the assertions therein as true. Thus our task is simply to determine whether
It must be emphasized that the plaintiff enrolled in the Kaiser plan in 1965, at a time when the master contract between Kaiser and the Board of Administrators of the State Employees Retirement System contained no arbitration clause and apparently none was contemplated. Thus plaintiff‘s enrollment in the plan was in no way conditioned upon a waiver of her right to sue for medical malpractice if it were to occur in the future, or upon an agreement to submit all future claims to arbitration.
Six years after plaintiff‘s original enrollment in the plan, without her knowledge or consent, the board purporting to act on her behalf agreed with Kaiser to amend the master contract to provide that plaintiff‘s claims must be submitted to arbitration. The board was given no specific authority to compel arbitration under the Meyers-Geddes Act, so the majority concede, but asserts it could do so under
Contrary to the unsupportable assumption of the majority, arbitration may be a “proper” scheme for settling malpractice disputes but it is not the “usual” or “ordinary” method. The normal, usual, ordinary, most frequently employed, commonly accepted means of resolving malpractice controversies is litigation in a court of law, with its due process protections and constitutional guarantee of a trial by jury. Despite аll the laudatory and affectionate expressions of the majority directed to the institution of arbitration-which I share in many respects-it still has not replaced the judicial system as the primary source of dispute resolution. (See, e.g., Mosk, Arbitration Versus Litigation (1953) 58 Com.L.J. 63; Mosk, The Lawyer and Commercial Arbitration (1953) 39 A.B.A.J. 193, 258.)
It is clear that a party can be compelled to submit a dispute to arbitration only if he has contracted in writing to do so (
The right to a jury trial is guaranteed by
In view of the foregoing controlling rules, I need not reach the plaintiff‘s contention that the amendment was a contract of adhesion, other than to note that there is support for that position in Tunkl v. Regents of University of California, supra, 60 Cal.2d 92.
Cases cited by the majority are not contrary to the foregoing principles. In Doyle v. Giuliucci (1965) 62 Cal.2d 606 [43 Cal.Rptr. 697, 401 P.2d 1], the “crucial question” was whether a father‘s right to enter into an arbitration agreement on behalf of a minor “is implicit in a parent‘s right and duty to provide for the care of his child.” (Id., at p. 610.) In Doyle the plaintiff father, later designated as guardian ad litem, initiated the arbitration proceedings. That factual context is inapposite to this situation in which the defendant unilatеrally seeks to compel arbitration by a reluctant adult plaintiff.
I would affirm the order of the trial court.