696 F.2d 1229 | 9th Cir. | 1983
Lead Opinion
Relatives of Edward Nevin appeal from a judgment in favor of the United States in this wrongful-death action brought under the Federal Tort Claims Act (the FTCA), 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b). They claim that Nevin died as a result of the Government’s negligence in conducting a simulated biological warfare attack on the City of San Francisco in 1950. The district court concluded in part that the Government was immune from suit because its acts fell within the discretionary function exemption to the FTCA, 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a).
On appeal, the Nevins concede that the selection of the test site fell within the discretionary function exemption, but argue that the selection of the strain of bacterium used did not. Even assuming that we should isolate the selection of the strain of bacterium from the selection of the site, we conclude that the decision to use the particular strain was exempt as a discretionary function.
The discretionary function exemption provides, in pertinent part, that the United States has not waived sovereign immunity on
[a]ny claim ... based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part of a federal agency or an employee of the Government, whether or not the discretion involved be abused.
28 U.S.C. § 2680(a). The purpose of the exemption is to permit the government to make planning-level decisions without fear of suit. Dalehite v. United States, 346 U.S. 15, 32, 73 S.Ct. 956, 966, 97 L.Ed. 1427 (1953); Lindgren v. United States, 665 F.2d 978, 980 (9th Cir.1982).
In this circuit, whether an act or omission falls within the exemption depends generally on whether that act or omission occurred at the planning level or the operational level of government. Weiss v. Lehman, 676 F.2d 1320, 1322 (9th Cir.1982), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 103 S.Ct. 725, 74 L.Ed.2d 953 (1983); Lindgren, 665 F.2d at 980. In making the determination, we have also considered the ability of the judiciary to evaluate the act or omission and whether the judicial evaluation would impair the effective administration of the government. Lindgren, 665 F.2d at 980 (citing Driscoll v. United States, 525 F.2d 136, 138 (9th Cir.1975)).
There is ample evidence in the record to support the conclusion that the decision by the Chief Chemical Officer, General Anthony McAuliffe, to use the particular
In making the decisions concerning the testing, including which strain of bacterium to use, General McAuliffe had to weigh numerous factors, including concerns for national security, a need for secrecy, the possible risks of urban testing, and applicable medical concerns. As the Nevins admit, the higher the governmental rank involved in making any decision of this type, the more likely it is that political, social, military and economic factors were weighed. Upon careful reflection, we do not think that this court is equipped to weigh the type of factors involved in such a basic policy determination. In addition, our review would likely impair the effective administration of government programs believed to be vital to the defense of the United States at the time that they are conducted.
In summary, none of the considerations we examine to determine the applicability of the discretionary function exemption calls for reversal of the district court’s determination. Whether the discretionary function exemption applies, however, is a question of subject-matter jurisdiction. Lindgren, 665 F.2d at 983. We must, therefore, vacate the judgment of the district court and remand the case with instruction to dismiss the action for lack of subject-matter jurisdiction.
VACATED and REMANDED.
Dissenting Opinion
dissenting:
I cannot agree that General McAuliffe’s decision to use a particular strain of bacterium in conducting a simulated biological attack on the City of San Francisco falls within the discretionary function exemption to the Federal Tort Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a) (1976).
That decision, in my view, was made at the operational, not the planning level of government. As appellant readily concedes, the decision to conduct a simulated attack on San Francisco was a planning decision that did fall within the exemption. It required the weighing of political, social and military factors and, as such, is a decision the judiciary is ill-equipped to review. But once that policy decision was made, its execution necessarily involved a myriad of decisions at the operational level which are not insulated from judicial review.
I would hold that the district court had subject matter jurisdiction over plaintiff’s action, but would affirm the judgment on the ground that the district court’s finding that the bacteria used by the Army did not cause Nevin’s death was not clearly erroneous.
. See S.A. Emprasa De Viacao Aerea Rio Gran-dense v. United States, 692 F.2d 1205, 1208 (9th Cir.1982) (“The discretionary function exemption was primarily intended to preclude tort claims arising from decisions by executives or administrators when such decisions require policy choices.”); Miller v. United States, 583 F.2d 857, 866 (6th Cir.1978) (“The discretionary function exception does not insulate the Government from liability for all mistakes of judgment of its agents, but only for significant policy and political decisions, the types of governmental decisions which should not be circumscribed by customary tort standards.”); Griffin v. United States, 500 F.2d 1059, 1066 (3d Cir.1974) (“Where the conduct of Government employees in implementing agency regulations requires only performance of scientific evaluation and not the formulation of policy, we do not believe that the conduct is immunized from judicial review as a ‘discretionary function.’ ”)