Lead Opinion
Three Albuquerque Police Department officers shot Stephan Cordova^ after he raised a gun in their direction. Cordova survived and was charged with assault, although the charges were later, dismissed on speedy trial grounds. Cordova then brought this action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, claiming primarily (1) that the charges of assault were brought in bad faith; (2) that the police unreasonably prevented interaction with his family when he was in a hospital recovering from his wounds; and (3) the police used excessive force by firing on him without an adequate warning. The district court allowed only the Fourth Amendment excessive-force claims to go to trial, where a-jury returned a verdict for the officers.
We find no error in the district court’s conclusions. As we explain below: (1) under the facts of this case, the dismissal of the assault charges under the Speedy Trial Act is not indicative of Cordova’s innocence and thus does not qualify as a favorable termination for purposes of a malicious prosecution cause of action; (2) Cordova’s familial-association claim fails because the prohibition on visitors was not intended to interfere with a protected relationship and was reasonably related to a legitimate government purpose; and (3) as to the excessive force claim, Cordo-va was adequately warned to drop a weapon he was wielding at the time of the shooting, and the district court correctly instructed the jury as to the applicable law.
Exercising jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1291, we AFFIRM.
I. Background
Stephan Cordova became ill at his work site. He called his mother for a lift to his brother’s house, where he was living. After his mother left him, his sister-in-law checked on him and found him seriously ill. She called an ambulance, believing that Cordova was having a heart attack. Cor-dova refused her offer to drive him to the hospital and told her that he would not get in the ambulance. When she told him that he had to go, he replied that he did not have to go anywhere because he had a gun.
When paramedics arrived, the sister-in-law told them that he was refusing treatment and that he had -a gun. - The Albuquerque Police were called, and officers Fox, Hoisington, Neiberger, and Kees responded. The officers quickly learned of his threats and instructed family members to leave the house. Officer Fox was also told about Cordova’s physical- condition and that he was in the middle of a difficult divorce. Officer Fox thought, at that point, Cordova might be suicidal.
Cordova eventually exited the house. The officers approached him and asked him to' stop and show his hands before moving further. Cordova began walking backward down the. street and Officer Kees noticed that Cordova had a gun in his waistband. According to the officers, he kept touching the gun at his waist, despite their repeated warnings to keep his hand away.
Cordova then drew the gun slowly, and held it at his waist, pointing down. Sergeant Fox then ordered Cordova to drop the gun. The three officers then claim to have simultaneously observed Cordova raising the gun in their direction, and all three fired, hitting Cordova eight times. After the shooting, Cordova was taken to a hospital for emergency surgery. During recovery, officers restricted access to his hospital room until he was able to speak with investigators.
While still ih the hospital, Cordova filed a motion to dismiss the complaint, quash the warrant, and to waive his first appearance. A court later set bond, and in an order setting .conditions of release, the judge handwrote “D to remain in custody at [the hospital] until further notice.” App. at 691. Despite the order, the next day the hospital discharged Cordova and detectives transferred him to a county dev tention center.
Cordova was later indicted, but moved to dismiss the indictment on the grounds that he had not been given an opportunity to present exculpatory evidence to the grand jury. The state court granted this motion to dismiss. Cordova was then re-indicted, and' after a two-year .delay again moved to dismiss the indictment on the grounds that the trial court had given an erroneous jury instruction. Undeterred, the state again indicted Cordova. He moved to dismiss this indictment on speedy trial grounds, given that nearly five years had passed from the filing of the initial criminal complaint. Over, the state’s objection, the court granted the. motion.
Cordova then brought this -action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 alleging a variety of federal constitutional violations, including excessive force, malicious prosecution and in-terferenee with his right to associate with his family.
II. Analysis
Cordova alleges the district court erred in granting summary judgment on his § 1983 malicious prosecution, familial association, and due process claims. For his excessive force claims, he contends the district court should have entered judgment in his favor or, at least, allowed a new trial because of a variety of trial and instructional errors.
We discuss each of Cordova’s claims in turn.
A. Malicious Prosecution
The district court granted summary judgment on Cordova’s malicious-prosecution claim because he failed to establish, as a matter of law, that the charges against him were terminated in his favor. He challenges the district court’s conclusion, contending that the dismissal of charges against him under New Mexico’s Speedy Trial Act constituted a favorable termination.
To prevail on a § 1983 malicious-prosecution claim, a plaintiff must show: (1) the defendant caused the plaintiffs confinement or prosecution; (2) the original action terminated in the plaintiffs favor; (3) there was no probable cause to confine or prosecute the plaintiff; (4) malice; and (5) damages. Wilkins v. DeReyes, 528 F.3d 790, 799 (10th Cir.2008). It is the plaintiffs burden to show that the termination was favorable. Id. at 803. Although the dismissal of the assault charges certainly worked to Cordova’s benefit, we agree with the district court that it was not
We most recently analyzed the contours of the favorable termination requirement in Wilkins. There, the prosecutor had dismissed the underlying charges by filing a so-called nolle prosequi—a voluntary dismissal of charges. Id. at 802. We found the mere fact that a prosecutor had chosen to abandon' a case was insufficient to show favorable termination. Instead, the termination must in some way “indicate the innocence of the accused.” Id. at 803 (quoting Restatement (Second) of Torts § 660 cmt. a (1977)). When it is unclear whether the termination indicates innocence, we “look to the stated reasons for the dismissal as well as to the circumstances surrounding it” and determine “whether the failure to proceed implies a lack of reasonable grounds for the prosecution.” Id. (quoting Murphy v. Lynn,
In this case, Cordova’s assault chargés were dismissed on speedy trial grounds after a series of procedural blunders by the prosecution that resulted in three failed indictments. The original indictment was dismissed because the state failed to give Cordova the opportunity to testify before the grand jury. The state then obtained a second indictment but Cordova obtained' a dismissal two years later because the grand jury was never instructed on a necessary element of the charges. After the grand jury returned a third indictment, the trial court dismissed the action: with prejudice' on speedy trial grounds over the state’s objection, reasoning that Cordova had been prejudiced by the repeated delays. This whole process took approximately five years.
As an initial matter, Cordova has not presented any argument'that the length of the process was attributable to intentional delay or the prosecution’s misgivings about the likelihood of a conviction. After the third indictment, the state explained that part of the delay was due to its prosecutor being new to the case and needing to catch up. In addition, the state court found Cordova had failed to invoke his speedy trial rights in a clear and timely manner during the pendency of the third indictment. And, in fact, prior to. the third dismissal, the. state expressed its desire and readiness to proceed to trial. Applying Wilkins, the district court found the underlying charges were dismissed on technical, procedural grounds which had nothing to do with the merits of the case. Given these undisputed facts, we agree with the district, court that the circumstances surrounding this dismissal are not indicative of Cordova’s innocence.
, Cordova asks us to set aside our indicative-of-innocence standard and find that speedy .trial dismissals are per se favorable. In support of his position, he cites to Second Circuit cases and a New York state court case holding that a dismissal under New York’s Speedy Trial Act qualifies as a favorable termination. See Rogers v. City of Amsterdam,
•These cases find speedy trial dismissals qualify as favorable terminations for three reasons. First,- they have reasoned that a state’s failure to proceed in a timely manner usually indicates- a lack of reasonable grounds for prosecution. See, e.g., Mur
Second, these cases theorize that any other rule would incentivize prosecutors to abandon weak charges rather than dismissing them outright, allowing them to obtain speedy trial dismissals and thus avoid malicious prosecution claims. Rogers,
Even the Second Circuit’s Murphy decision supports our determination, that not all speedy trial dismissals qualify as favorable terminations. In Murphy, the prosecution failed to present any explanation for its delay in bringing the defendant to trial.
, The final argument made in the New York line of cases is that basic fairness requires us to recognize speedy trial dismissals as favorable. They argue that it would be unjust to force a criminal defendant to choose between enforcing his speedy trial rights and maintaining the ability to bring a malicious prosecution action. But these cases fail to recognize that such trade-offs are a standard feature of malicious prosecution law. Courts routinely find that dismissals resulting from a defendant’s exercise of his statutory (or even constitutional) rights are not favorable for the purposes of a later malicious prosecution claim. For example, as noted in Wilkins, a termination may not be favorable even when the charges are abandoned. This' is the case, for example, when key evidence is ruled inadmissable. When “evidence [is] only suppressed on ‘technical’ grounds having no or little relation to the evidence’s trustworthiness, then the fact that there [is] not other sufficient evidence [is] not ... indicative of innocence.” Wilkins,
In short, these cases are based on a different understanding of the favorable termination requirement than we endorsed in Wilkins. Wilkins adopted the traditional common law element that a dismissal must “indicate the innocence of the accused” to qualify as a favorable termination. Wilkins,
Applying our indicative-of-innocence rule, many courts have found that an abandonment is not favorable even when the crucial evidence was suppressed on constitutional grounds.
Thus, a plaintiff generally cannot maintain a malicious prosecution action unless his charges were dismissed in a manner indicative of innocence, even when he was entitled to dismissal on statutory- or constitutional grounds. Although this rule may produce a dilemma for defendants at least in some applications, -it is both-a standard feature of the tort of malicious prosecution and a reflection of the idea that malicious prosecution actions are disfavored at common law.( See Hernon v. Revere Copper & Brass, Inc.,
A speedy trial dismissal, moreover, is unlike the nolle prosequi in Wilkins, in which the prosecution merely dropped the charges. This action by the prosecution is ambiguous, in that we cannot know'the reasons ‘for dropping the charges. Here, by contrast, the state court unambiguously granted a motion to dismiss the charges against Cordova. But this distinction is irrelevant. The question we must ask is whether the dismissal was indicative of innocence. It cannot be the case that all dismissals that result from granted motions are favorable terminations, for purposes of malicious prosecution actions. The dismissal here - does not indicate Cor-dova’s innocence, so it is not a favorable termination.
The favorable termination requirement thus serves as a useful filtering mechanism, barring actions that have not already demonstrated some likelihood of success. Although the traditional requirement may bar some meritorious actions, where prose-cutorial delay does indicate the innocence of the accused the plaintiff will not be barred from bringing his malicious prosecution claim under our rule. Our conclusion is thus more receptive to Cordova’s fairness concerns than many applications in this area of the law traditionally are—a dismissal due to a lack of jurisdiction or of admissible evidence will rarely reflect on the merits of the case and is therefore more likely to, bar a meritorious claim. Nor, we should emphasize, does a dismissal of charges create a presumption of innocence or shift the burden of proving’the element of favorable termination to the defendant.
In sum, we agree with the district court that the dismissal of the underlying assáult charges under New Mexico’s Speedy Trial Act was hot indicative of Cordova’s innocence. The undisputed facts reveal the prosecution did not abandon its effort to try Cordova, and nothing suggests the speedy trial dismissal indicated his innocence of the charged crime. Absent such a showing, the district court properly granted summary judgment on the malicious prosecution claim.
B. Familial Association
Cordova next challenges the district court’s dismissal of his familial association claim. The court found Cordova had not pointed to any facts that would allow a reasonable jury to conclude the officers intended to interfere with a protected relationship.
“Th[e] right to familial association is grounded in the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause.” Lowery v. Cty. of Riley,
The district court granted summary judgment in favor of the officers, finding the'familial-association claim was barred by qualified immunity. “[Qualified immunity protects government officials from liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Pearson v. Callahan,
We agree with the district court that Cordova cannot meet either prong of the deprivation of familial-association test,- and thus cannot show a'violation of his constitutional rights. After the shooting, Cordova was taken in for emergency surgery, stabilized, and eventually transferred to a room. At that point, officers barred visitors from his hospital room until he was able to speak with police. Five days later, investigators were informed that Cordova was able to communicate and they attempted to obtain a statement. But at that time he asked to speak with an attorney. The officers immediately terminated the interview and the visitation restriction was lifted. The magistrate judge ultimately granted summary judgment on Cordo-va’s familial-association claim, finding that he could -not demonstrate the officers intended to interfere with a protected relationship.
Cordova has not presented any evidence demonstrating that the officers intended to interfere with his right to familial association. See Thomas,
The officers claim- two- legitimate government objectives in response. First, they argue the visitation Restriction helped ensure that Cordova’s eventual statement was “uncontaminated by the thoughts and views of others.” Aple. Br. at 22. Second, they contend the restriction advanced the safety of officers and hospital personnel immediately following the shooting. Cor-
We disagree that he raises a genuine issue of material fact as to the officers’ intent. As mentioned above, the argument is that a jury could infer intent to interfere with his relationships from the lack of legitimate reasons for barring visitors from his room.- The government, however, did-have-a legitimate interest in the restriction: it was attempting to obtain an untainted or uninfluenced statement concerning the shooting.
Nor has Cordova proffered any facts or theories that would allow a jury to find this justification was pretextual. He argues detectives could not have been very concerned with, getting uncontaminated statements because the officers involved in the shooting did not have similar restrictions placed on them. We fail to see the relevance of this point. Again, Cordova was in police custody for the aggravated assault, of three police officers, a crime for which he would eventually be charged. Detectives’ treatment of the officers in no way relates to the state’s interest in obtaining an uncontaminated statement from Cordova. Cf. Bell,
We therefore find no error in the district court’s dismissal of the familial-association claim. Because Cordova could not demonstrate a constitutional violation, the officers were entitled to qualified immunity on this claim.
C. Right to a Preliminary Hearing
Cordova next argues the officers failed to timely return the arrest warrant to the state court as required by state law. He contends this delay amounted to a violation of his right to due process. The district court granted summary judgment in favor of the officers, concluding that any delay did not infringe on his procedural due process rights.
In assessing due process claims, our cases require us to ask two questions: “(1) whether the plaintiff has shown the deprivation of an interest in ‘life, liberty, or property’ and (2) whether the procedures followed by the government in depriving the plaintiff of that interest comported with ‘due process of law.’ ” Elliott v. Martinez,
Cordova points to a New Mexico law that requires the police to return arrest warrants to the issuing court immediately after an arrest is completed.
We find no merit in these contentions. Cordova relies on our -recent precedent that an arrestee has a right to a probable-cause hearing -within forty-eight hours of arrest; Wilson v. Montano,
Here, a neutral magistrate judge determined there was probable cause to detain Cordova within a day of his arrest and signed a warrant for his arrest. Cordova has made no suggestion that this procedure was in conflict with the Supreme Court’s prior cases approving probable cause determinations made “by a magistrate in a nonadversary proceeding.” Gerstein,
Cordova has not identified any constitutionally protected liberty interests which could support his claim that he was deprived of timely legal process. As discussed above, an arrestee is not constitutionally entitled tó a probqble-cause hearing within forty-eight hours of arrest where a neutral magistrate has already made a probable cause determination. Nor does anything in New Mexico law establish a right to a preliminary hearing within twelve days of arrest. The district court did not err in dismissing this claim.
D. Transfer from, University of New Mexico Hospital
Cordova’s final constitutional claim is that one of the officers violated his due process rights by transferring him-from UNMH to a county jail’s medical facility after the hospital discharged him. He bases this on the state court’s bond order which contained a handwritten note stating, “D to remain in custody at UNMH-until further notice.” App. at 691. Cordo-va contends this created a constitutionally protected liberty interest in his remaining at UNMH.
The officer is entitled to qualified immunity on this claim. To establish a due process claim, a plaintiff must demonstrate the violation of a clearly established constitutional right. A right is clearly established “when, at the time of the challenged conduct, ‘[t]he contours of [a] right [are] sufficiently clear’ that every ‘reasonable official would have understood that what, he is doing violates that right.’ ” Ashcroft v. al-Kidd,
First, the Supreme Court has never held thqt a state court custody order can create a constitutionally protected liberty interest in confinement at a particular facility. Even if such a right exists, it was not clearly established at the time of Cordova’s transfer. The bond order stated Cordova should remain at UNMH until further notice. It was not the officer who initiated Cordova’s removal from UNMH—the discharge order was issued by the hospital itself. The officer, moreover, had a legitimate interest in keeping Cordova in some
' In sum, Cordova has pointed to no federal case that would have placed the officer on notice that he had to hold Cordova at UNMH, in contravention of the hospital’s discharge order. As a result, the district court did not err in granting qualified immunity on this claim.
E. Trial Errors and Jury Instructions
Cordova also lodges a series of challenges to the district court’s evidentiary rulings and jury instructions, which, he argues, together entitle, him to .a new trial or judgment as a matter of law on his excessive force claims. He claims five errors, which we consider in turn: (1) the district court improperly admitted evidence of events prior to the officers’ arrival that was irrelevant' to the reasonableness of the decision to use force; (2) counsel for the officers also (a) improperly introduced comparative negligence principles relating to the use of force; (b) encouraged members of the jury to empathize with the officers; (c) improperly disparaged Cordova’s claims and counsel; and (3) the jury instructions were legally erroneous because they failed to inform the jury that an officer’s use of force must be directed at an immediate threat and, where feasible, the officer must issue a warning before using deadly force.
1. Prior Events
Cordova first argues the district court improperly allowed so-called “hindsight” evidence—evidence of which the officers could not have been aware of at the time of the shooting and thus could not have affected the reasonableness of their decision to use force. In particular, he objects to the admission of evidence about Cordova’s behavior prior to the police encounter.
As an initial matter, it is unclear what evidence the district court -improperly allowed. Where ,a party objects to the admission of a class of evidence on a particular ground, (i.e. hearsay or relevance), he must identify the particular evidence at issue to be entitled to appellate review. See United States v. Thornburgh,
In any event, the district court did not abuse its discretion in admitting evidence of events prior to the shooting. Contextual evidence can be admitted to help explain later events, especially where it might make one version of events more or less likely. See Boyd v. City and Cty. of San Francisco,
- In sum, the district court did not- err-in admitting evidence of' Cordova’s - actions prior to the shooting.
2. Comparative Negligence
Cordova next argues the officers improperly introduced irrelevant comparative negligence principles to the jury. “Comparative negligence is not applied,in suits for violations of federal constitutional rights.” Quezada v. Cty. of Bernalillo,
Cordova claims several instances where comparative negligence was improperly introduced. First, one officer testified,
The statements were relevant and admissible. An individual’s failure to comply with an officer’s commands is relevant to determining the degree of threat posed by that individual. Thomson v. Salt Lake Cty.,
3.Golden Rule
Cordova argues defense counsel improperly encouraged jurors to empathize with the officers by asking them to place themselves in the officers’ shoes at the time of the shooting. It is well established that a party may not exhort the jury to “place itself in a party’s shoes with respect to damages.” Shultz v. Rice,
4.Disparagement of Counsel and Claim
Next, Cordova argues that defense counsel- made an improper appeal to emotion in closing arguments. He contends the defense counsel implied to the jury that a verdict for Cordova would promote other lawsuits against officers, who have to make deadly force decisions, and that plaintiffs counsel did not have a good faith belief in some of the claims made to the jury.
These arguments are waived. Cordova did not object to the closing arguments at trial and does not argue for plain error review on appeal. See Richison v. Ernest Group, Inc.,
5.Jury Instructions
Finally, Cordova challenges one aspect of the jury instructions. . The district court’s instructions required Cordova to establish that the officers did not provide an adequate warning before deploying deadly force. The court instructed the jury that an officer’s command to “drop the weapon” is a sufficient warning in a situation where events are unfolding quickly. Cordova contends this instruction inadequately represents the proper legal standard.
“[J]ury instructions [are reviewed] as a whole and view[ed] in the context of the entire trial to determine if they ‘accurately state the governing law and provide the jury with an accurate understanding of the relevant legal standards and factual issues in the case.’” United States v. Bedford,
Where feasible, an officer is required to warn a suspect that hé is going to shoot before doing so. See Garner, 471
Cordova also contends that an instruction stating that officers may use force if “there was a threat of serious physical harm” was deficient for not limiting the use of force to immediate threats of serious physical harm. Reading the instructions as a whole, however, makes it clear that the jury was given an accurate explanation of the law. That same instruction told jurors to consider “whether the suspect posed an immediate threat” and whether he made any “hostile motions” towards the officers. App. at 1179. The instruction also said that a warning was required before shooting, when possible, and that an “order to drop a weapon is sufficient in cases where events 'are unfolding extremely quickly.” Id. Taken in context, the instruction clearly focuses the jury on the necessity of an immediate threat. We therefore find no error in the wording of this instruction.
In sum, we reject each of Cordova’s alleged errors and agree with the district court’s decisions denying his motion for judgment as a matter of law and his motion for a new trial.
III. Conclusion
For the reasons set forth above, the district court is AFFIRMED.
Notes
. In his reply brief, Cordova also challenged the dismissal of his municipal-liability claims against the City of Albuquerque. However, his attorney admitted at oral argument that he had waived this issue by failing to include it in his opening brief. See Reedy v. Werholtz,
. See, e.g., Miller v. Cuccia,
. See, e.g., Rhodes v. Mabus,
.See, e.g., Schlueter v. S. Energy Homes, Inc.,
. The officers contend we should analyze Cor-dova’s familial-association claim similarly to our cases addressing pretrial detention, relying on Bell v. Wolfish,
. Because, we agree with the government's first purported interest, we need not address the relationship between the prohibition on visitors and its interest in insuring the safety of officers and hospital personnel.
. Section 31-1^4 of the New Mexico.Statutes provides in part:
D. . It shall be the duty of the clerk of the district court to issue process in criminal cases filed in the district court. It shall be the duty of the clerk of the magistrate court or the magistrate, if there is no clerk, to issue process in criminal cases filed in the magistrate court. It shall be the duty of the law enforcement officer to whom process is directed to execute process and return the same to the clerk of the court from which process is issued or, if there is no clerk of the court, to the judge thereof. -
Concurrence Opinion
concurring in the judgment.
The plaintiff seeks, damages first and foremost because, he says, local law enforcement officials violated his Fourth or maybe his Fourteenth Amendment rights (we’re never told which) by committing the common law tort of malicious prosecution. The defendants accept the premise that the Constitution- somewhere (they too never say where) contains something resembling a malicious prosecution tort. Both sides even .agree that proof of a “favorable termination” is an- essential element of their constitutionalized tort and they disagree only over how favorable that termination must be. The plaintiff argues that a procedural victory should suffice while the defendants contend that any termination must speak more clearly to the plaintiff’s innocence.
Respectfully, I‘ would decline the parties’ invitation to their fight. We are not in the business of expounding a common law of torts. Ours is the job of interpreting the Constitution. And that document isn’t some inkblot on which litigants may project their hopes and dreams Tor a new and perfected tort law, but a carefully drafted text judges are charged with applying according to its original public meaning. If a party wishes to claim , a constitutional right, it is incumbent on him to tell us where it lies, not to assume or stipulate with the other side that it must be in there someplace.
To be sure, the parties are hot the only ones to blame here. The question of malicious prosecution and its place (or not) in the Constitution is “one on which there is an embarrassing diversity of judicial opin
Consider the alternatives most frequently offered as contenders, the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments. In Albright, the opinions were various and varied but at least seven- justices of the Supreme Court seemed to agree that the “substantive” component of the.Fourteenth Amendment’s due process clause contains nothing like this tort. See
That leaves the Fourth Amendment. Here the story is longer but there’s strong reason to suspect it ends the same way. The plurality in Albright expressly left open the possibility that the Fourth Amendment might provide a home for something like a tort of malicious prosecution.
The only apparent way around this problem appears to invite more problems of its own. While the tort of- malicious prosecution focuses on the misuse of judicial proceedings, some have suggested the Fourth Amendment might too because a criminal defendant remains “seized” for Fourth Amendment purposes not just during the pendency of- his arrest -but throughout the life of a criminal prosecution—even while he is at liberty on bond awaiting trial. See, e.g., Albright,
You would have to wonder, too, if bending the history and language of the Fourth Amendment in new and procrustean ways to embrace a malicious prosecution tort might invite some unintended, consequences. What would a Fourth Amendment-right look like when expanded to parties-and witnesses at liberty awaiting trial? Might every trial subpoena contest now assume constitutional dimension—and if not, why not? Might expanding the Amendment’s reach at least marginally disincentivize the use of liberty-protecting, pre-trial citation ‘ processes previously thought sufficient to avoid the Amendment’s application? See Martinez v. Carr,
. Neither is that the end to the nettles lining the Fourth Amendment path. Anyone wanting to claim a place in the Fourth Amendment for something like a malicious prosecution tort would, of course, have to
These are, as well, hardly the only themes on which we might expect variations and disputes. -Our case offers one more example among what are sure to be many. The defendants contend for a rule requiring the plaintiff to prove not just that a prior criminal action against him was terminated in his-favor, but that it was terminated in a way suggesting his innocence on the merits. The court today adopts that standard and claims to do so as a matter of constitutional imperative.. But no one has directed us to any other circuit to have gone so far as a matter of constitutional law. Meanwhile, many states do not require so much as a matter of common law, holding that terminations won on procedural grounds, like the speedy trial dismissal in this case, suffice. See, e.g., Murphy v. Lynn,
If all these brambles lining the Fourth Amendment path don’t leave you doubting the wisdom of venturing that way, perhaps they at least leave you wondering about the necessity of the attempt. After all, out of respect for considerations of judicial modesty, efficiency, federalism, and comity, the Supreme Court in procedural due process cases generally encourages federal
The objections to abstention are familiar but unpersuasive. Some have argued that § 1983 authorizes federal courts to remedy constitutional injuries so federal courts must decide any claim brought under its auspices. See, e.g., Albright,
In the end', all the'difficulties and doubts associated with finding a home for a tort of malicious prosecution in the Constitution confirm for me the obvious: that “some questions of ... tort law are best resolved by” tort law. Albright,
From what I can tell after a brief and lonely look, the "indicative of innocence” gloss proffered by the defendant is just that, a possibility alluded to by some common law courts and appearing in a comment to the Restatement of Torts—but not a requirement appearing in the Restatement's actual text and not a firm and settled requirement in anything- like all common law jurisdictions at the time of .the Amendment's adoption—let alone now. See Martin L. Newell, A Treatise on the Law of Malicious Prosecution and the Abuse of the Legal Process 327 (1892) ("[J]ust what is a legal termination of the prosecution and sufficient to maintain the action: ... does not appear to have been so completely settled.”); see also Clark v. Cleveland,