COMMONWEALTH of Pennsylvania, Appellee v. Michael SERGE, Appellant.
896 A.2d 1170
Supreme Court of Pennsylvania.
Argued April 13, 2005. Decided April 25, 2006.
671
Andrew John Jarbola, William P. O‘Malley, Lisa Ann Gillick, Eugene M. Talerico, Scranton, for Com. of PA, appellee.
Before: CAPPY, C.J., CASTILLE, NIGRO, NEWMAN, SAYLOR, EAKIN and BAER, JJ.
OPINION
Justice NEWMAN.
Michael Serge (Appellant) appeals the sentence of life imprisonment entered by the Court of Common Pleas of Lacka
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
On the morning of January 15, 2001, Appellant shot his wife, Jennifer Serge (Victim), three times, killing her inside their home in Scott Township, Lackawanna County. Appellant was arrested that morning and charged with one count of first-degree murder,
On June 18, 2001, prior to trial, the Commonwealth filed a Motion in limine, seeking to present the prosecution‘s theory of the fatal shooting through a CGA based on both forensic and physical evidence.1 On September 14, 2001,
At his jury trial held January 29, 2002 to February 12, 2002, Appellant alleged that he had acted in self-defense as his wife attacked him with a knife. He further asserted that he should be acquitted on the grounds of justifiable self-defense. Alternatively, Appellant argued that his extreme intoxication at the time of the shooting rendered him incapable of formulating the specific intent to kill.
The Commonwealth countered that the killing was intentional, and that Appellant, a former Lieutenant of Detectives with the Scranton Police Department, “used his decades of experience as a police officer to tamper with the crime scene to stage a self-defense setting.” Trial Ct. Op. 8/19/05 p. 5. In particular, the Commonwealth asserted that Appellant had moved his wife‘s body and strategically positioned her near a knife that he had placed on the floor, as depicted in the CGA.
On February 7, 2002, during its case-in-chief, the Commonwealth presented a CGA as demonstrative evidence to illustrate the expert opinions of its forensic pathologist, Gary W. Ross, M.D. (Dr. Ross), and crime scene reconstructionist, Trooper Brad R. Beach (Trooper Beach). The CGA showed the theory of the Commonwealth based upon the forensic and physical evidence, of how Appellant shot his wife first in the lower back and then through the heart as she knelt on the living room floor of their home. More importantly, the animation showed the location of Appellant and his wife within the living room, the positioning of their bodies, and the sequence,
The trial court thoroughly instructed the jury of the purely demonstrative nature of the CGA both before the animation was presented and during the jury charge prior to deliberation. In particular, the court noted that the CGA was a demonstrative exhibit, not substantive evidence, and it was being offered solely as an illustration of the Commonwealth‘s version of the events as recreated by Dr. Ross and Trooper Beach. Finally, the court informed the jury that they should not confuse art with reality and should not view the CGA as a definitive recreation of the actual incident.
On February 12, 2002, the jury found Appellant guilty of first-degree murder and the trial court immediately sentenced him to life imprisonment. Appellant filed a timely appeal, challenging several of the jury instructions and evidentiary rulings of the trial court. In a published Opinion filed December 3, 2002, the Superior Court affirmed the trial court‘s Judgment of Sentence. Commonwealth v. Serge, 837 A.2d 1255 (Pa.Super.2003). On August 25, 2004, we granted allowance of appeal limited solely to the issue of whether the admission of the CGA depicting the Commonwealth‘s theory of the case was proper. The admissibility of a CGA is an issue of first impression in the Commonwealth.
DISCUSSION
We determine that, for the reasons below, a CGA is admissible evidence in this Commonwealth. In particular, CGA evidence must be weighed by the same criteria of admissibility; namely, probative value versus prejudicial effect to which all other evidence is subject. Notably, certain concerns prior to admission carry more weight and deserve closer scrutiny when admitting CGA evidence than more traditional forms of evidence.
Appellant argues that the trial court erred in allowing the Commonwealth to present a CGA, which was used to introduce evidence of the Commonwealth‘s theory of the killing.
Society has become increasingly dependent upon computers in business and in our personal lives. With each technological advancement, the practice of law becomes more sophisticated and, commensurate with this progress, the legal system must adapt. Courts are facing the need to shed any technophobia and become more willing to embrace the advances that have the ability to enhance the efficacy of the legal system. However, before we are too quick to differentiate CGA‘s or create a special test for their admission, it must be noted that the rules for analyzing the admission of such evidence have been previously established. In particular, a CGA should be treated equivalently to any other demonstrative exhibit or graphic representation and, thus, a CGA should be admissible if it satisfies the requirements of
There are three basic types of evidence that are admitted into court: (1) testimonial evidence; (2) documentary evidence; and (3) demonstrative evidence. 2 McCormick on Evidence § 212 (5th ed. 1999). Presently, at issue is demonstrative evidence, which is “tendered for the purpose of rendering other evidence more comprehensible to the trier of fact.” Id. As in the admission of any other evidence, a trial court may admit demonstrative evidence whose relevance outweighs any potential prejudicial effect. Commonwealth v. Reid, 571 Pa. 1, 811 A.2d 530, 552 (2002), cert. denied, 540 U.S. 850, 124 S.Ct. 131, 157 L.Ed.2d 92 (2003). The offering party must authenticate such evidence. “The requirement of authentication or identification as a condition precedent to admissibility is satisfied by evidence sufficient to support a finding that the matter in question is what its proponent claims.”
The overriding principle in determining if any evidence, including demonstrative, should be admitted involves a weighing of the probative value versus prejudicial effect. We have held that the trial court must decide first if the evidence is relevant and, if so, whether its probative value outweighs its prejudicial effect. Commonwealth v. Hawk, 551 Pa. 71, 709 A.2d 373, 376 (1998). This Commonwealth defines relevant evidence as “having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action
At issue is both the basis and form of the demonstrative evidence offered. An expert witness may offer testimony other than opinions.
Demonstrative evidence continues to evolve as society advances technologically. Medical witnesses use computerized axial tomography, i.e. CAT scans, and magnetic resonance imaging instead of, or with, traditional x-rays. Forensic pathologists previously used only blood types in an attempt to bolster their testimony and implicate a defendant, but now use specific DNA matches to prove the statistical probability that a defendant was, by virtue of biological evidence at the scene of a crime, present at some point in time. See Commonwealth v. Blasioli, 552 Pa. 149, 713 A.2d 1117 (1998) (accepting the use of DNA matching of blood and semen to prove the statistical probability that the blood and semen found on the victim after an alleged rape was that of the defendant).
The law has been flexible enough to accommodate scientific progress and technological advances in all fields, and should continue to do so.4
Presently, had the Commonwealth‘s experts, a crime scene reconstructionist and a pathologist, used traditional methods, they may have drawn chalk diagrams or sketches on a blackboard to help explain the basis for their opinions. Instead, they used a CGA to more concisely and more clearly present their opinion. The difference is one of mode, not meaning. The law does not, and should not, prohibit proficient professional employment of new technology in the courtroom. This is, after all, the twenty-first century. As such, we must turn to the traditional factors considered in determining if a particular CGA is admissible.
It should be noted that conspicuously absent among the factors to be considered in determining the relevancy and
Here, both the trial court and the Superior Court determined that the Commonwealth had satisfied all foundational requirements for admitting the animation and therefore it was properly admitted as demonstrative evidence. After applying the three-prong test noted above, we agree.
Appellant initially argues that the Commonwealth did not properly authenticate the CGA.
In authenticating the CGA, the Commonwealth presented the testimony of multiple individuals, including: (1) Randy Matzkanin (Matzkanin), the Director of Operations for 21st Century Forensic Animations; (2) Trooper Beach; and (3) Dr. Ross. Additionally, Patrolman Jared Ganz, Patrolman Joseph Zegalia, Trooper George Scochin, Trooper Connie Devens, and Trooper Gustas testified at trial concerning the physical evidence and the measurements taken at the crime scene, both of which were used in creating the CGA. Further, the creator of the CGA testified at the Motion in limine hearing that the CGA was a graphical presentation of another expert‘s opinion,
Matzkanin described the process employed in making the animation and testified that it was a strict depiction of the Commonwealth‘s forensic evidence and expert opinions. Matzkanin stated that he used the expert opinions provided by Trooper Beach and Dr. Ross as well as the measurements gathered at the crime scene. N.T. 2/7/02 p. 135-37. Moreover, Matzkanin discussed both the computer software and hardware that created the three dimensional CGA drawings and their general use in the field. Id. at 140-43. Matzkanin, at the questioning of the Commonwealth, carefully explained the differences between a CGA and a simulation. Id. at 141-42. Matzkanin stated that he began working on the project at the end of January 2001, or beginning of February 2001, and continued until December 20, 2001. Id. at 134-35. During his testimony, Matzkanin explained that photos are used to reconstruct the room, including color and the like, but the major factor in recreation is the measurements. Id. at 136. However, Matzkanin explained that the character depictions are more difficult because of the stock models used by the company to represent people. Id. He further testified that the models do not represent the defendants. Id. at 137. Next, the CGA is created in a rough draft and sent to the Commonwealth for further input. Matzkanin could not recall the exact number of versions created but specified that many changes were made to ensure that the CGA conformed to the opinions of Trooper Beach and Dr. Ross. Matzkanin further explained that drawings are recorded in time intervals of thirty frames per second and thereafter transferred onto a DVD or video tape to create the image of motion. Id. at 139, 141-42.
At trial, and in his brief, Appellant argues that various depictions within the CGA are unsupported by any evidence.7
Moreover, the depictions of the physical locations of Appellant and the victim were necessary within the overall framework of the presentation. Clearly, reconstruction will not reveal the exact pose of each finger, hair, distances precise to the micrometer, or other minor aspects of the individuals involved. As noted in the instructions to the jury, and during the cross-examination of Matzkanin and Trooper Beach, Appellant highlighted the alleged inconsistencies within the presentation and any flaws, thereby reducing the credibility the jury might assign to the CGA. However, the CGA is still
Appellant had many opportunities to, and did, cross-examine Matzkanin and to try to undermine the credibility of the video and the opinions of the expert witnesses. The cross-examination highlighted the purpose of a CGA. Specifically, Appellant‘s trial counsel asked Matzkanin if he had any idea if the measurements were accurate and whether errors in the report would render the CGA incorrect. Id. at 171-75. In addition, Matzkanin was questioned about a knife that appeared in the last scene of the animation, but never appeared in the victim‘s hands. Despite attempting to emphasize an apparent facial illogicality to this sequence, the CGA was merely representing the theory of the Commonwealth. In particular, it was the contention of the Commonwealth that Appellant placed the knife there after firing the shots in an attempt to stage the crime scene and create a claim of self-defense. The Commonwealth also theorized that Appellant had moved the victim‘s right arm because the blood evidence indicated to Dr. Ross that Appellant had moved the arm of the victim after death in an attempt to create a self-defense claim. N.T. 2/4/04 at 217-19. Appellant, through cross-examination, highlighted the information that actually was either unfounded or that represented an arbitrary choice where the data was unknown, such as the exact positions of each body part. In accordance with the purpose of the CGA, the trial court instructed the jury that the CGA did not represent fact, but the theory of the Commonwealth and was meant to demonstrate the opinions of the Commonwealth experts.
The CGA is not meant to represent the theories of both parties; rather, as noted by both the trial court and Matzkanin, the sole purpose of the CGA and role of Matzkanin was to represent the findings of Trooper Beach and Dr. Ross. Matzkanin made no active decisions, rather, he merely interpreted the data and made corrections to the CGA based on the
Because the CGA was properly authenticated, we must turn to the second prong of the three-part test, which involves a question of its relevancy. The CGA was relevant because it clearly, concisely, and accurately depicted the Commonwealth‘s theory of the case and aided the jury in the comprehension of the collective testimonies of the witnesses without use of extraneous graphics or information.
The Pennsylvania Rules of Evidence define relevant evidence as, “having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence.”
Appellant argues that, in the alternative, even if the CGA is relevant, it is cumulative. However, as noted by the Superior Court, although the evidence did not offer anything inherently original, it presented a clear and precise depiction of the Commonwealth‘s theory and evidence as presented by its experts. Pursuant to
Accordingly, we must turn to the third and final prong, prejudice. It is within this prong that a CGA has the potential danger due to the visual nature of the presentation. Various jurisdictions that have been faced with the issue of CGA-evidence have noted the potentially powerful impact based upon its visual nature, but, nonetheless, have permitted CGA evidence. See fn. 3, supra. Despite this potential power,8 even inflammatory evidence may be admissible if it is relevant and helpful to a jury‘s understanding of the facts and the probative value outweighs its prejudicial effect. See Commonwealth v. Jacobs, 536 Pa. 402, 639 A.2d 786 (1994) (holding that the evidentiary value of photographs taken at one victim‘s autopsy and photographs showing position of bodies at crime scene outweighed their prejudicial effect, where blood and tissue had been cleaned from body before color photographs had been taken, photographs exposed exceedingly malicious manner of murders, bolstered prosecution‘s theory that killings were intentional, not just result of
Presently, the content of the CGA was neither inflammatory nor unfairly prejudicial. Any prejudice derived from viewing the CGA resulted not from the on-screen depiction of the Commonwealth‘s theory, but rather was inherent to the reprehensible act of murder. The possible unnecessary and prejudicial aspects of a CGA were not present. In particular, the CGA did not include: (1) sounds; (2) facial expressions; (3) evocative or even life-like movements; (4) transition between the scenes to suggest a story line or add a subconscious prejudicial effect; or (5) evidence of injury such as blood or other wounds. Instead, much like a two-dimensional hand drawing of bullet trajectories, the CGA merely highlighted the trajectory of the three bullets fired, concluding from ballistics and blood splatter that the body had been moved after the victim died as part of Appellant‘s attempt to stage his self-defense. The CGA was devoid of drama so as to prevent the jury from improperly relying on an emotional basis. See People v. Hood, 53 Cal.App.4th 965, 972, 62 Cal.Rptr.2d 137 (1997) (permitting a CGA in a murder trial, in part because “[t]he animation was clinical and emotionless. This, combined with the instruction given the jurors about how they were to utilize both animations, persuades us that the trial court did not [err in permitting the CGA].“) The major difference between a traditional chart or drawing of bullet trajectories and the instant presentation lays in the three-dimensional nature that enabled the Commonwealth experts to present their exact theory and the underlying mathematics used in formulating its case. In particular, the ability to rotate the view allowed the Commonwealth‘s experts to explain the exact path of the bullets and show why the evidence suggested that
Within his argument concerning prejudice, Appellant, in this appeal, additionally raises the issue that public policy should prevent the presentation of a CGA, which, allegedly, costs between $10,000.00 and $20,000.00 to make.9 He notes that his entire defense fund, provided by the Commonwealth due to his in forma pauperis status, was limited to $10,000.00. (Brief of Appellant, p. 44). Any additional expenditure would then come from Appellant.10
This argument is waived because it was not raised at the trial court level.
Precedent exists concerning the admission of expert testimony that is beyond the means of an indigent defendant. This Court recently addressed the rights of an indigent defendant when the prohibitively expensive expert was a psychiatrist. Specifically, in Commonwealth v. Fisher, 572 Pa. 105, 813 A.2d 761, (2002), this Court opined that in Ake v. Oklahoma, 470 U.S. 68, 105 S.Ct. 1087, 84 L.Ed.2d 53 (1985), the U.S. Supreme Court held “that when a capital defendant‘s mental health is at issue, ‘the Constitution requires that an
This Court in Commonwealth v. Bardo, 551 Pa. 140, 709 A.2d 871 (1998), cert. denied, 525 U.S. 936, 119 S.Ct. 350, 142 L.Ed.2d 289 (1998), held that a defendant does not have an absolute right to a court appointed investigator based on Ake, supra. “[T]raditionally the appointment of an investigator has been a matter vested in the discretion of the court.” Id. at 875. See also Commonwealth v. Howard, 553 Pa. 266, 719 A.2d 233 (1998) (holding that a request for professional assistance need not be granted where the defendant, appellant, or postconviction petitioner fails to identify particularized need for such assistance related to a colorable issue presented in his defense, appeal, or petition, or where an adequate alternative to the requested form of professional assistance is available). In Commonwealth v. Carter, 537 Pa. 233, 643 A.2d 61 (1994), cert. denied, 514 U.S. 1005, 115 S.Ct. 1317, 131 L.Ed.2d 198 (1995), this Court upheld the denial of Commonwealth funds to assist an indigent defendant in hiring experts in the fields of toxicology, neurology, statistics, jury selection, hand writing analysis, and sociology/criminology. This Court opined that:
The decision to appoint an expert witness is within the sound discretion of the trial court and will not be disturbed except for a clear abuse of that discretion. United States ex rel. Dessus v. Pennsylvania, 316 F.Supp. 411 (E.D.Pa.1970), affirmed, 452 F.2d 557 (3rd Cir.1971), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 853, 93 S.Ct. 184, 34 L.Ed.2d 96 (1972); Commonwealth v. Gelormo, 327 Pa.Super. 219, 475 A.2d 765 (1984). There is no obligation on the part of the Commonwealth to pay for the services of an expert. Commonwealth v. Williams, 522 Pa. 287, 561 A.2d 714, 718 (1989) (citing Commonwealth v. Box, 481 Pa. 62, 391 A.2d 1316 (1978)); Commonwealth v. Rochester, 305 Pa.Super. 364, 451 A.2d 690 (1982). However, in a capital case, an accused is entitled to the assistance of experts necessary to prepare a defense. United States ex rel. Dessus, 316 F.Supp. at 418.
Carter, 643 A.2d at 73 (citations modified); see also Commonwealth v. Howard, 553 Pa. 266, 719 A.2d 233 (1998) (stating that, in a capital case, “it is clear that a request for professional assistance need not be granted where the defendant...fails to identify a particularized need for such assistance related to a colorable issue presented in his defense...or where an adequate alternative to the requested form of professional assistance is available.“). Similarly, there can be no obligation to provide the defendant the finances necessary to create a CGA of his or her own.11 Chief Justice Cappy‘s
It is argued that the uniquely dangerous aspect of a CGA is in its visual appeal to a jury resulting in an acceptance of the CGA as fact. However, such a danger is vitiated by thorough cautionary instructions that educate the jury on the exact nature and role of a CGA. Presently, the trial court safeguarded against the possibility of jury confusion over the animation or potential prejudice by supplying a thorough and extensive cautionary instruction before playing the CGA. Those instructions were:
Members of the jury, parties in a case are permitted to use photographs, drawings and other exhibits to illustrate a point they are attempting to make in a case. This is what we refer to as demonstrative evidence. We refer to this type of evidence as demonstrative evidence, as opposed to
substantive evidence, since it is offered merely to demonstrate or illustrate a point rather than as actual proof of that point. With the advent of the digital age, computers are now used to produce this type of demonstrative evidence. You heard testimony from Dr. Gary Ross and Trooper Brad Beach that the computer-generated animation, which will now be shown to you, is a fair and accurate illustration of the opinions that they formed as to how this shooting allegedly occurred. You also heard this witness describe how he produced the three-dimensional drawings with computer software to depict those opinions, and thereafter transform them onto this DVD to produce moving images, which will be played for you. What you are about to be shown is commonly referred to as a computer-generated exhibit. There are two types of computer-generated exhibits, and you heard the witness refer to them. The first is what we call a simulation, and the second is what we refer to as an animation.
In a simulation, data is entered into a computer, which is preprogrammed to perform certain calculations by applying, for example, the laws of physics, mathematical formulas, and other scientific principles in order for the computer itself to draw conclusions and to attempt to recreate an incident. The end product of a simulation represents the computer program‘s conclusion of what happened. And the results of the computer simulation serve as the basis for the testifying expert‘s opinion of what happened.
In contrast, an animation is simply a graphic depiction, or illustration, of an opinion that an expert has already formed based upon his or her own independent investigation, computations, and analysis. With an animation, the computer does not perform any scientific calculations or develop any opinions, as is the case with the simulation. An animation consists of computer-generated drawings which are assembled frame by frame, and, when viewed sequentially, produce the image of motion. Thus, an animation is merely a graphic depiction or illustration of an opinion or recreation
which an expert witness in the case has already devised through his or her own independent calculations and analysis. Please understand that what you are about to view is an animation, not a simulation. This computer-generated animation is a demonstrative exhibit, not substantive evidence, and it is being offered solely as an illustration of the Commonwealth‘s version of events as recreated by Dr. Gary Ross and Trooper Brad Beach. You should not confuse art with reality and should not view the animation as a definitive recreation of the actual incident. The series of pictures which have been drawn by the computer and transferred on to the tape for your review are no different from a witness sketching a series of drawings on paper and then fanning those pages to portray moving images of his or her opinion. Remember, the demonstrative animation is only as good as the underlying testimony, data, assumptions, and opinions that serve as the basis for its images, and the computer maxim, “garbage in, garbage out,” applies equally to computer animations. Like all other evidence in the case, you may accept it or reject it, that is, the computer-generated animation, in whole or in part. I caution you again that the animation may only be considered for demonstrative purposes to illustrate the opinions of Dr. Gary Ross and Trooper Bradley Beach. Always bear in mind that the Commonwealth must still meet its burden of proving all of the elements of the offense charged beyond a reasonable doubt.
Serge, 837 A.2d at 1263-64 (citing Notes of Testimony 2/7/02 at 153-56). Although limiting instructions may not be necessary, such cautionary instructions limit the prejudice or confusion that could surround a CGA.12 See Harris, 13 P.3d at 495
CONCLUSION
In a question of first impression in this Commonwealth, we hold that a CGA is potentially admissible as demonstrative evidence, as long as the animation is properly authenticated, it is relevant, and its probative value outweighs the danger of unfair prejudice or confusion. Therefore, because in the instant matter: (1) the Commonwealth satisfied all of the foundational requirements for admitting the CGA as demonstrative evidence; (2) the CGA was relevant evidence that enabled the Commonwealth experts to illustrate their opinions and educate the jury on the forensic and physical data; and (3) the alleged prejudicial effect of the CGA does not outweigh its relevance, we conclude that the admission of this evidence was proper. Hence, the admission of a CGA depicting the theory of the Commonwealth in this case was proper. Accordingly, we affirm the decision of the Superior Court.
Former Justice NIGRO did not participate in the decision of this case.
Chief Justice CAPPY files a concurring opinion.
Justice CASTILLE files a concurring opinion.
Justice EAKIN files a concurring opinion.
Chief Justice CAPPY concurring.
I join the majority opinion. I write separately to address three points and offer that trial courts need to take the following into consideration upon the Commonwealth‘s request to admit a CGA in criminal matters.
First, in all future criminal cases, I endorse and would require the Commonwealth to follow the procedure that was followed in this case when it wants to present a CGA as demonstrative evidence. Specifically, I would require the Commonwealth to file a pretrial motion in limine seeking permission to present the CGA. The trial court should then hold a pretrial hearing, during which the Commonwealth would authenticate the CGA, and the court would preview the CGA. At this pretrial stage, the court should pay close attention to ensuring that the admission of such evidence will actually “assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or determine a fact in issue,” Majority opinion at 684, 896 A.2d at 1178, and to the CGA‘s potential for prejudice.
Second, I understand that the issue as to whether a defendant should be given the opportunity to present his own computer generated animation (CGA) was waived and therefore, is not properly before us. Nevertheless, I offer the following thoughts. I agree with the majority that the admission of the CGA will be guided by the considerations that normally govern demonstrative evidence, including authentication, relevancy, and weighing the probative value versus the prejudicial impact of that evidence. In reviewing the probative/prejudice prong, I emphasize that the trial court needs to consider whether giving the defendant the opportunity to
Lastly, I agree with the majority that in this instance, the trial court properly ensured that the jury understood the purpose of such evidence through its instructions given before the animation was presented and during the jury charge prior to deliberation. I write separately to express my belief that in future cases, such a limiting instruction should be included in all cases involving the admission of a CGA.
Justice CASTILLE concurring in the result.
I concur in the result since I believe that the admission of the computer generated animation (“CGA“) in this case was not an abuse of discretion. The trial court was faced with a novel evidentiary question; it responded in a careful and measured manner, which included issuing detailed cautionary instructions; and my own review satisfies me that there is no basis for awarding appellant relief from his first-degree murder conviction. I also am in general agreement with the approach and analysis in Madame Justice Newman‘s learned Majority Opinion. However, the question of the admissibility of this sort of evidence as a general matter implicates certain policy and supervisory considerations that I believe go beyond the narrow confines of the ruling below. On that general question, I have some reservations respecting the necessity, helpfulness, and economic utility of CGA evidence.
With respect to the role of the computer in producing computer-generated animations and/or simulations, and the implications of the computer‘s “conclusion” as discussed in footnote 1 of the Majority Opinion, I write to emphasize that the fact that the computer creates a drawing or image does
The point, though it may appear to be minor, is no less essential. A CGA is not an inherently objective or neutral presentation of the evidence or the theory of the case. As with all human endeavors, the process of creating a CGA offers an opportunity for coloring and manipulating the end-product. As the trial court told the jury, if garbage goes into the production, garbage will come out. Thus, the accuracy of a CGA or computer simulation is always subject to challenge for accuracy and bias, no less than any other evidence.
This immutable fact of life, given the current state of technology, should give pause as this Court considers the general admissibility of this type of evidence. In a case where both parties are well-funded, each will have the resources available to hire the computer professionals necessary to challenge the accuracy of a proffered CGA or to generate a competing animation. In contrast, in a criminal case involving an indigent defendant, the cost of assuring that the defense is able to adequately assess the accuracy of a Commonwealth CGA, or to produce a competing CGA of its own either contesting the accuracy of the Commonwealth‘s depiction or depicting a defense theory, would have to be borne by the
With respect to the question of an indigent defendant‘s entitlement to funds to produce a competing CGA, or his entitlement to have excluded the Commonwealth‘s CGA if he cannot afford to rebut the animation, the Majority correctly notes that appellant‘s argument in this regard is waived as it was not raised below. Majority op. at 691-95, 896 A.2d at 1183-84. Nevertheless, the Majority goes on in dicta to address the issue, ultimately suggesting that an indigent defendant has no right to public funds to arrange for his own CGA, and that the question of whether the Commonwealth should be permitted to introduce a CGA in a case where the defense cannot afford a counter-CGA should be left to the discretion of the trial judge. Id. at 695-96, 896 A.2d at 1185. I cannot join in the Majority‘s extended dicta on the point both because it is not properly before this Court and because I, like the Chief Justice, would leave open the prospect that the interests of justice may require providing an indigent defendant with the funds necessary to respond to a CGA produced by the Commonwealth. See Concurring Opinion (Cappy, C.J.), at 700, 896 A.2d at 1188.1 Furthermore, I should note that the fact that
Justice EAKIN concurring in the result.
I concur with the result of the majority. Like Justice Castille, I do not join the majority‘s discussion regarding finances because I believe it is waived. See Majority Op., at 691-95, 896 A.2d at 1183-84. I write separately as I think the court‘s discussion of this irrelevant area is dangerous.
Admissibility of evidence is not a function of finances of the parties. If one side chooses to develop evidence, of this or any type, its admissibility cannot rest on a determination of the relative resources of the other party. Relevance, not money, is what makes something admissible.
Likewise, the majority‘s discussion of a motion in limine is unnecessary. See Majority Op., at 678-79 n. 2, 896 A.2d at 1174-75 n. 2. Again, the matter has not been raised and we
There are general principles of evidence and its admission that cover these animations as well as any other evidence. Technology advances, and the law must accommodate it, but we need not write a new rule every time a new manifestation of evidence arises. Our existing rules of admissibility, discovery, and motions cover this situation quite adequately. While clearly fancier, in legal concept this animation appears little different from any other drawing or chart—it is a visual aid and nothing more. Time-tested principles will determine its admissibility without a new rule specific only to computer-generated animations or variations, existent or to come. Adding dicta suggesting a special rule because of the form of the visual aid is not warranted or necessary.