ADKINS ET AL., CONSTITUTING THE MINIMUM WAGE BOARD OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, v. CHILDREN‘S HOSPITAL OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Nos. 795, 796
Supreme Court of the United States
April 9, 1923
261 U.S. 525
Argued March 14, 1923
Syllabus.
ADKINS ET AL., CONSTITUTING THE MINIMUM WAGE BOARD OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, v. CHILDREN‘S HOSPITAL OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
SAME v. LYONS.
APPEALS FROM THE COURT OF APPEALS OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Nоs. 795, 796. Argued March 14, 1923.—Decided April 9, 1923.
- The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, while constituted of two of the three Justices of that court and one Justice of the Supreme Court of the District, affirmed decrees of the latter court dismissing bills; thereafter, at the same term, (the Supreme Court Justice having been replaced by the third Justice of the Court of Appeals) it granted rehearings and reversed the decrees, and, thereafter, on second appeals, it affirmed decrees entered pursuant to the reversals. Held that objections to the jurisdiction to grant the rehearings did not go to the jurisdiction over the second appeals, and need not be decided here upon review of the decrees of affirmance. P. 543.
- Every possible presumption stands in favor of an act of Congress until overcome beyond rational doubt. P. 544.
- But when, in the exercise of the judicial authority to ascertain and declare the law in a given case, it is clear and indubitable that an act of Congress conflicts with the Constitution, it is the duty of the Court so to declare, and to enforce the Constitution. Id.
- This is not to exercise a power to review and nullify an act of Congress, for no such power exists; it is simply a necessary concomitant of the power to hear and dispose of a case or controversy properly before the court, to the determination of which must be brought the test and measure of the law. Id.
- That the right to contract about one‘s affairs is part of the liberty of the individual protected by the
Fifth Amendment , is settled by repeated decisions of this Court. P. 545. - Within this liberty are contracts of employment of labor. In making these, generally speaking, the parties have equal right to obtain from each other the best terms they can by private bargaining. Id.
Statement of the Case. 261 U.S.
- Legislative abridgment of this freedom can only be justified by the existence of exceptional circumstances. P. 546.
- Review of former decisions concerning interferences with liberty of contract; by
- Legislation fixing hours or conditions of work may properly take into account the physical differences between men and women; but, in view of the equality of legal status, now established in this country, the doctrine that women of mature age require, or may be subjected to, restrictions upon their liberty of contract which could not lawfully be imposed on men in similar circumstances, must be rejected. P. 552.
- The limited legislative authority to regulate hours of labor in special occupations, on the ground of health, affords no support to a wage-fixing law, the two subjects are essentially different. P. 553.
- The Minimum Wage Act of Sept. 19, 1918, c. 174, 40 Stat. 960, in assuming to authorize the fixing of minimum wage standards for adult women, in any occupation in the District of Columbia, such standards to be based wholly upon what a board and its advisers may find to be an adequate wage to meet the necessary cost of living for women workers in each particular calling and to maintain them in good health and protect their morals, is an unconstitutional interference with the liberty of contract. P. 554.
(a) Statutes fixing the rates and charges of businesses affected by a public interest. P. 546
(b) Statutes relating to the performance of contracts for public work. P. 547.
(c) Statutes prescribing the character, methods and time for payment of wages. Id.
(d) Statutes fixing hours of labor. Id.
284 Fed. 613, affirmed.
APPEALS from decrees of the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, affirming two decrees, entered, on mandate from that court, by the Supreme Court of the District, permanently enjoining the appellants from enforcing orders fixing minimum wages under the District of Columbia Minimum Wage Act.
Mr. Felix Frankfurter, with whom Mr. Francis H. Stephens was on the brief, for appellants.
Argument for Appellants.
The presumption to be accorded an act of Congress—that it be respected unless transgression of the Constitution is shown “beyond a rational doubt“—amply sustains the District of Columbia Minimum Wage Law, particularly in view of the circumstances of its enactment. Congress, under
Argument for Appellants. 261 U.S.
industry or diminishing appreciably employment for employables. The legislation has also successfully weathered the severest strains of “hard times.” It is urged with confidence that no such body of laws “attesting a wide-spread belief in the necessities of such legislation,” Prudential Insurance Co. v. Cheek, 259 U. S. 530, supported by uniform judicial approval, subjected to so long, extensive, fair and favorable a test of actual experience, has ever been before this Court, to vindicate the reasonableness of the legislative intervention and to negative the claim that Congress was guilty of “a purely arbitrary or capricious exercise of that [legislative] power.” Truax v. Corrigan, 257 U. S. 312, 329.
Congress aimed at “ends” that are “legitimate and within the scope of the Constitution.” McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 421. Charged with the responsibility of safeguarding the welfare of the women and children of the District of Columbia, it found that alarming public evils had resulted, and threatened in increasing measure, from the widespread existence of a deficit between the essential needs for decent life and the actual earnings of large numbers of women workers of the District. In the judgment of Congress, based upon unchallenged facts, these conditions impaired the health of this generation of women and thereby threatened the coming generation through undernourishment, demoralizing shelter and insufficient medical care. In its immediate effects, also, financial burdens were imposed upon the District, involving excessive and unproductive taxation, for the support of charitable institutions engaged in impotent amelioration rather than prevention. Here, if ever, was presented a community problem of a most compelling kind, calling for legislation “greatly and immediately necessary to the public welfare.” Noble State Bank v. Haskell, 219 U. S. 104, 111. The purpose of the act was to provide for the deficit between the cost of women‘s
525 Argument for Appellants.
labor, i, e., the means neсessary to keep labor going—and any rate of women‘s pay below the minimum level for living, and thereby to eliminate all the evils attendant upon such deficit upon a large scale. There is no dispute that Congress was acting in good faith, after mature deliberation, in avowing the purposes which it did in the enactment of this law, to wit: “To protect the women and minors of the District from conditions detrimental to their health and morals, resulting from wages which are inadequate to maintain decent standards of life.” Having regard to the concrete situation, the judgment of Congress that such legislation was necessary cannot in reason be stigmatized as unreasonable.
The means selected by Congress “are appropriate” and “plainly adapted” (McCulloch v. Maryland, supra) to accomplish the legitimate ends. The possible alternatives open to Congress in this situation were: (1), to submit to the evils as inevitable human misfortunes, subject only to alleviation through public and private charity; (2), provide a direct subsidy out of the public treasury to pay a wage equal to the necessary cost of living; (3), adopt the Massachusetts method, which seeks to compel for women workers a minimum wage through the pressure of public exposure of offending employers; or, (4), take the method it did take, which involved a prohibition of the use of women‘s labor for less than its cost except by special license from the Board.
There was cumulative testimony, both in the belief of those entitled to express an opinion and in the actual record of experience, that these evils are not inevitable human misfortune. Congress was entitled to disprove that lazy gospel of fatalism as other English-speaking countries equally jealous of sаfeguarding liberty and property, and many American States, had disproved it. From the point of view of effectiveness in accomplishing its purposes, the choice of Congress, among the three re-
Argument for Appellants. 261 U.S.
medial methods, surely was not “arbitrary” or “unreasonable.” It had the support of a great body of public opinion, (see Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U. S. 11, 31, 34-35; Muller v. Oregon, 208 U. S. 412, 420; McLean v. Arkansas, 211 U. S. 539, 548-9; Tanner v. Little, 240 U. S. 369, 385-6), crystallized in the extensive and successful experience of English countries with such legislation, in the fact of such legislation in other States, in the successful working of such legislation. In other words, Congress rested upon the appeal “from judgment by speculation to judgment by experience.” Tanner v. Little, 240 U. S. 369, 386.
Where a law has been long on the statute books, speculative claims of injustice must yield to the results of actual experience. Cf. National Union Fire Ins. Co. v. Wanberg, 260 U. S. 71.
No rights of plaintiffs secured under the Constitution prohibit the use of the means adopted by Congress in the Minimum Wage Law to accomplish legitimate public ends. It is for the plaintiff to show some explicit withdrawal of the legislative power as exercised in this case. The only alleged obstruction is the “due process” clause. And the only point for consideration is whether the deprivation of “liberty” or “property” which is involved is “without due process of law.”
This Court has consistently recognized the futility of defining “due process.” The “due process” clauses embody a standard of fair dealing to be applied to the myriad variety of facts that are involved in modern legislation. That is why this Court has refused to draw lines in advance. The impact of facts must establish the line in each case. The application of “due process” clauses is, in the last analysis, a process of judgment by this Court. In the application of the varying facts to the test of fair dealing the ultimate questiоn in this Court is, does legislation, or its actual operation, “shock the sense of fairness
525 Argument for Appellants.
the
It is not arbitrary, wanton or spoliative for Congress to require the consent of the Board before allowing a wage contract affecting women at below cost, but a valid exercise of the “police power,” because of the actual handicaps of women in industry. This was one of the principal grounds of the state courts in sustaining this legislation. This is legislation of the same nature as that revealed by a long line of cases upholding limitations placed upon freedom of contract with women in various ways. They rest upon a realization of the fact that the mass of women workers cannot secure terms of employment needful from the point of view of public welfare
Argument for Appellants. 261 U.S.
without the weight of legislation being thrown into the scales. Muller v. Oregon, 208 U. S. 412; Riley v. Massachusetts, 232 U. S. 671; Hawley v. Walker, 232 U. S. 718; Miller v. Wilson, 236 U. S. 373; Bosley v. McLaughlin, 236 U. S. 385.
It is not arbitrary, wanton or spoliative for Congress to require employers to pay the cost of women‘s labor. The employer, and the employer alone, receives the benefit of the woman‘s working energy, which cannot be produced or maintained by less than the reasonably ascertained minimum cost of her labor. Since he has her product he ought to pay for its cost, unless and until the employer, by special license, is given the right to use labor at less than its usual cost.
The action of Congress is not arbitrary, wanton, or spoliative; because the direct interest of the District in these particular wage contracts affecting women gave it a special justification for controlling them. A contract for labor below its cost must inevitably rely upon a subsidy from outside or result in human deterioration. To the extent of the subsidy or the deterioration the public is necessarily concerned. The employer has no constitutional right to such an indirect subsidy or to cause such deterioration. Nor has a woman any absolute “right” to give her energies to the employer if she cannot keep her side of the bargain without indirect subsidy or without incurring physical or moral impairment.
It is not arbitrary, wanton or spoliative to require the employer to obtain a license from the Board before he can buy a woman‘s labor at less than cost; because that is a reasonable means of preventing cut-throat and unfair competition between manufacturers. Congrеss legislated in the light of actual industrial conditions which denied the abstract equality of bargaining power among women. Congress found that women, in substantial numbers, were under a handicap because they were women. Therefore
525 Argument for Appellants.
by legislation it sought to fill the gaps caused by the ignorance or helplessness of women workers, and the ignorance or avarice of some employers. In this it merely followed a long line of legislation which has restricted the field of unregulated competition by prohibitions enforced through a great variety of remedies. The Constitution does not require that right standards should prevail solely through their inherent reasonableness or through enlightened self-interest.
It is not arbitrary, wanton or spoliative for Congress to require the consent of the Board before allowing a woman employee to sell labor below cost; because that is a reasonable means for preventing unfair competition between women employees. The underlying principle is the same as that which eliminates prison labor from competition against free labor. The essential purpose is to compel employers to pay the living cost to all their women employees whose product is worth it, and thereby correspondingly protect the efficient against ruinous competition.
It is not arbitrary, wanton or spoliative for Congress to require the consent of the Board before allowing wage contracts to women workers at below cost; because that is a reasonable exercise of power to foster the productivity of industry. This is a measure of conservation and preservation of the human resources of the State, which is of even more primary importance than the conservation of natural resources. And so its constitutionality follows a fortiori from the line of cases which support statutes passed for the preservation and effective utilization of natural resources. Hudson Water Co. v. McCarter, 209 U. S. 349; Mt. Vernon Co. v. Alabama Power Co., 240 U. S. 30; Pacific Live Stock Co. v. Oregon Water Board, 241 U. S. 440; Walls v. Midland Carbon Co., 254 U. S. 300.
The majority opinion of the District Court of Appeals erects its own notions of policy into constitutional prohi-
Argument for Appellants. 261 U.S.
bitions. It assumes a specific constitutional prohibition against interference with the wage contracts. But there is no specific prohibition against dealing with a wage contract, as such. There is only the general guarantee of fair dealing—the satisfaction of a “sense of fairness” of the “due process” clauses; and so we find that the wage contract has been interfered with frequently by legislation with the sanction of this Court—legislation which directly affected the money value of the wage contracts, which operated to the financial advantage of one side and was of alleged cost to the other. Payment in cash as against store orders, Knoxville Iron Co. v. Harbison, 183 U. S. 13; Dayton Coal Co. v. Barton, 183 U. S. 24; Keokee Co. v. Taylor, 234 U. S. 227; payment on basis of coal mined before being screened, McLean v. Arkansas, 211 U. S. 539; Rail and River Co. v. Yaple, 236 U. S. 338; semi-monthly cash payments, Erie R. R. Co. v. Williams, 233 U. S. 685—all these requirements affected money terms, cash value, dollars and cents; all involved legislative interferences with wage contracts; all were sustained because each was found a not unreasonable means to safeguard a public interest. Each case was dealt with, not on any absolutist assumption of immunity of wage contracts from legislative interference, but quite the opposite; the concrete circumstances of each case were found to negative arbitrary restraint.
The great fact that this legislation applies solely to women has no relevance for the Court of Appeals. “If it [Congress] may regulate wages for women, it may by thе exercise of the same power establish the wages to be paid men.” This argument is founded upon the
525 Argument for Appellees.
Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161, and Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1, are wholly inapplicable. The considerations of public health, morals and the general welfare which are the basis and immediate aims of the Minimum Wage Law for women are not presented by the statutes involved in the earlier cases. The restricted scope of these cases, dealing with a purpose “to favor the employee at the expense of the employer and to build up the labor organizations” was carefully pointed out in a recent decision by the Justice who wrote for the court in the Coppage Case. Prudential Insurance Co. v. Cheek, 259 U. S. 530.
Neither in reason nor in experience does the Minimum Wage Law for women imply, as the court below indicated, power “to fix the prices of all commodities entering into the determination of an equitable wage.” Nor is there any basis for the claim that “experience has demonstrated that a fixed minimum wage means in the last analysis a fixed wage.”
On all these questions we appeal from “judgment by speculation” to “judgment by experience.” Tanner v. Little, 240 U. S. 369, 386.
Mr. Wade H. Ellis and Mr. Challen B. Ellis, with whom Mr. Joseph W. Folk was on the brief, for appellees.
The Minimum Wage Law of the District of Columbia is unconstitutional because it is a price-fixing law, directly interfering with freedom of contract, which is a part of the liberty of the citizen guaranteed in the
The protection of liberty and property guaranteed in the
Argument for Appellees. 261 U.S.
Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1, 14; Truax v. Raich, 239 U. S. 33; Prudential Insurance Co. v. Cheek, 259 U. S. 530. These principles apply to legislation by Congress for the District of Columbia. Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 540, 550; Wight v. Davidson, 181 U. S. 371.
That a law fixing wages generally in private employment would be beyond legislative power is uniformly assumed or indicated in the decisions of this Court. Cooley, Const. Lim., 7th ed., p. 870; Labatt, Master and Servant, 2nd ed., § 846; Frisbie v. United States, 157 U. S. 160, 166; Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1; Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U. S. 426. In decisions of this Court where wage laws or price-fixing laws have been sustained, such laws were sustained solely on the ground that they were to tide over a temporary emergency and in business affected with a public interest. Wilson v. New, 243 U. S. 332; Ft. Smith & Western R. R. Co. v. Mills, 253 U. S. 206; Block v. Hirsh, 256 U. S. 135; Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U. S. 393.
There is a clear distinction between “hours-of-service,” and similar laws directly promoting health or safety or preventing fraud and only indirectly affecting the cost of labor, on the one hand, and on the other hand “wage laws,” directly fixing the price in the bargain between employer and employee, and only indirectly or remotely effecting some other purpose. The distinction is pointed out in Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1; Frisbie v. United States, 157 U. S. 160, 166. The mere freedom to contract secured in the constitutional guaranty cannot itself be said to be inimical to the public welfare and restricted under the guise of an exercise of the police power, for the police power cannot be used to amend the Constitution. Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U. S. 393; Truax v. Corrigan, 257 U. S. 312.
If a law fixing prices or wages is not a health law, because the mere freedom to determine the amount that
525 Argument for Appellees.
should be charged in the exchange of property or services for money cannot itself be dangerous to health, morals or safety, then manifestly it is not a health law for women any more than it would be for men, and it does not become valid by having it apply to wоmen only. “Hours-of-service” laws are distinguishable in this respect. “Hours-of-service” laws, being clearly health laws within the police power, permit the exercise of legislative discretion to determine the extent to which they shall go and to take into account the differences in physical nature of the persons to whom they shall apply. They may be in a particular instance justified as to women, where they might not be as to men. Muller v. Oregon, 208 U. S. 412. But, being proper exercises of the police power, as health laws, they would also be valid when appropriately applied to men. Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U. S. 426. But the general rule that a person has the right to sell his labor upon such terms as he deems proper, is a fundamental rule applying to men and women alike. Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161, 174.
The contention that this Court must consider only the reasonableness of the law, so as to determine whether it is arbitrary, wanton or spoliative, and cannot consider the power of Congress to deal at all with the subject, is answered in the decisions. Holden v. Hardy, 169 U. S. 366; Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co., 157 U. S. 429; Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1; Truax v. Raich, 239 U. S. 33; Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 623; Child Labor Tax Case, 259 U. S. 20. If every law which expedience may suggest may be called a health law, or a public welfare law, and thus become an exercise of the police power, the constitutional limitations break down, and no action of the legislative body is in any way restricted by the positive guaranties of the fundamental law. Truax v. Corrigan, 257 U. S. 312; Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U. S. 393; Child Labor Tax Case, supra.
Argument for Appellees. 261 U.S.
The contention that the consequences of sustaining the power of the legislative body to fix wages for women cannot be considered, is wholly at variance with the decisions of this Court in numerous cases. In testing the constitutionality of any legislative act, we have the right to inquire, as this Court did, in Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161; Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U. S. 1; Truax v. Raich, 239 U. S. 33; Truax v. Corrigan, 257 U. S. 312; Child Labor Tax Case, 259 U. S. 20, to what distance and in what direction the departure from familiar standards may lead us, and what precedents may be established by sustaining the power claimed, which may be cited hereafter as authority for further legislation of wider scope or more extended character.
Requirement of a minimum wage, without corresponding requirement of amount or efficiency of service in return, is the taking of property without just compensation, and not even for a public purpose, but for private purpose, contrary to the
The requirement that wages shall be fixed at a sum to maintain health and protect morals, provides a vague and uncertain standard incapable of application and renders the act void for this reason alone. 40 Stat. 960, §§ 9, 11.
The contention that employer or employee are not deprived of property rights because special licenses for defectives are provided for in the act, is unsound, because special licenses can not be obtained by the employer, nor by the employee as such, and, in any event, the wage is still fixed by the Board. 40 Stat. 960, 963, § 13.
The assignment of error in the action of the Court of Appeals in granting a rehearing on the first appeal from the Supreme Court of the District is without merit, because the present review is from the second appeal in the lower court, and not from the first appeal, and no question can be raised as to the authority of the court below to
525 Opinion of the Court.
hear and determine the second appeal. Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co., 261 U. S. 114. Further it is elementary that the granting or refusing of a rehearing in an equity suit is not the subject of review. Steines v. Franklin County, 14 Wall. 15; Roemer v. Neumann, 132 U. S. 103.
Mr. William L. Brewster, by leave of court, on behalf of the States of Oregon, New York, California, Kansas, Wisconsin and Washington, as amicus curiae.
By leave of court, briefs were filed by counsel, appearing as amici curiae, as follows: Mr. Isaac H. Van Winkle, Attorney General of the State of Oregon, Mr. Joseph N. Teal and Mr. William L. Brewster, on behalf of the Industrial Welfare Commission of Oregon. Mr. Carl Sherman, Attorney General of the State of New York, and Mr. Edward G. Griffin, Deputy Attorney General, on behalf of that State. Mr. Hiram Johnson and Mr. Jesse Steinhart, on behalf of the Industrial Welfare Commission of California. Mr. John G. Egan, Assistant Attorney General of the State of Kansas, on behalf of that State. Mr. Herman L. Ekern, Attorney General of the State of Wisconsin, Mr. J. E. Messerschmidt, Assistant Attorney General, and Mr. Fred M. Wilcox, on behalf of that State. Mr. Edward Clifford and Mr. Kenneth Durham on behalf of the Minimum Wage Committee of the State of Washington.
MR. JUSTICE SUTHERLAND delivered the opinion of the Court.
The question presented for determination by these appeals is the constitutionality of the Act of September 19, 1918, providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and children in the District of Columbia. 40 Stat. 960, c. 174.
The act provides for a board of three members, to be constituted, as far as practicable, so as to be equally repre-
Opinion of the Court. 261 U.S.
sentative of employers, employees and the public. The board is authorized to have public hearings, at which persons interested in the matter being investigated may appear and testify, to administer oaths, issue subpoenas requiring the attendance of witnesses and production of books, etc., and to make rules and regulations for carrying the act into effect.
By § 8 the board is authorized—
“(1), To investigate and ascertain the wages of women and minors in the different occupations in which they are employed in the District of Columbia; (2), to examine, through any member or authorized representative, any book, pay roll or other record of any employer of women or minors that in any way appertains to or has a bearing upon the question of wages оf any such women or minors; and (3), to require from such employer full and true statements of the wages paid to all women and minors in his employment.”
And by § 9, “to ascertain and declare, in the manner hereinafter provided, the following things: (a), Standards of minimum wages for women in any occupation within the District of Columbia, and what wages are inadequate to supply the necessary cost of living to any such women workers to maintain them in good health and to protect their morals; and (b), standards of minimum wages for minors in any occupation within the District of Columbia, and what wages are unreasonably low for any such minor workers.”
The act then provides (§ 10) that if the board, after investigation, is of opinion that any substantial number of women workers in any occupation are receiving wages inadequate to supply them with the necessary cost of living, maintain them in health and protect their morals, a conference may be called to consider and inquire into and report on the subject investigated, the conference to be equally representative of employers and employees in
525 Opinion of the Court.
such occupation and of the public, and to include one or more members of the board.
The conference is required to make and transmit to the board a report including, among other things, “recommendations as to standards of minimum wages for women workers in the occupation under inquiry and as to what wages are inadequate to supply the necessary cost of living to women workers in such occupation and to maintain them in health and to protect their morals.” § 11.
The board is authorized (§ 12) to consider and review these recommendations and to approve or disapprove any or all of thеm. If it approve any recommendations it must give public notice of its intention and hold a public hearing at which the persons interested will be heard. After such hearing, the board is authorized to make such order as to it may appear necessary to carry into effect the recommendations, and to require all employers in the occupation affected to comply therewith. It is made unlawful for any such employer to violate in this regard any provision of the order or to employ any woman worker at lower wages than are thereby permitted.
There is a provision (§ 13) under which the board may issue a special license to a woman whose earning capacity “has been impaired by age or otherwise,” authorizing her employment at less than the minimum wages fixed under the act.
All questions of fact (§ 17) are to be determined by the board, from whose decision there is no appeal; but an appeal is allowed on questions of law.
Any violation of the act (§ 18) by an employer or his agent or by corporate agents is declared to be a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment.
Finally, after some further provisions not necessary to be stated, it is declared (§ 23) that the purposes of the act are “to protect the women and minors of the District
Opinion of the Court. 261 U.S.
from conditions detrimental to their health and morals, resulting from wages which are inadequate to maintain decent standards of living; and the Act in each of its provisions and in its entirety shall be interpreted to effectuate these purposes.”
The appellee in the first case is a corporation maintaining a hospital for children in the District. It employs a large number of women in various capacitiеs, with whom it had agreed upon rates of wages and compensation satisfactory to such employees, but which in some instances were less than the minimum wage fixed by an order of the board made in pursuance of the act. The women with whom appellee had so contracted were all of full age and under no legal disability. The instant suit was brought by the appellee in the Supreme Court of the District to restrain the board from enforcing or attempting to enforce its order on the ground that the same was in contravention of the Constitution, and particularly the due process clause of the
In the second case the appellee, a woman twenty-one years of age, was employed by the Congress Hall Hotel Company as an elevator operator, at a salary of $35 per month and two meals a day. She alleges that the work was light and healthful, the hours short, with surroundings clean and moral, and that she was anxious to continue it for the compensation she was receiving and that she did not earn more. Her services were satisfactory to the Hotel Company and it would have been glad to retain her but was obliged to dispense with her services by reason of the order of the board and on account of the penalties prescribed by the act. The wages received by this appellee were the best she was able to obtain for any work she was capable of performing and the enforcement of the order, she alleges, deprived her of such employment and wages. She further averred that she could not secure any other position at which she could make a living, with
525 Opinion of the Court.
as good physical and moral surroundings, and earn as good wages, and that she was desirous of continuing and would continue the employment but for the order of the board. An injunction was prayed as in the other case.
The Supreme Court of the District denied the injunction and dismissed the bill in each case. Upon appeal the Court of Appeals by a majority first affirmed and subsequently, on a rehearing, reversed the trial court. Upon the first argument a justice of the District Supreme Court was called in to take the place of one of the Appellate Court justices, who was ill. Application for rehearing was made and, by the court as thus constituted, was denied. Subsequently, and during the term, a rehearing was granted by an order concurred in by two of the Appellate Court justices, one being the justice whose place on the prior occasion had been filled by the Supreme Court member. Upon the rehearing thus granted, the Court of Appeals, rejecting the first opinion, held the act in question to be unconstitutional and reversed the decrees of the trial court. Thereupon the cases were remanded, and the trial court entered decrees in pursuance of the mandate, declaring the act in question to be unconstitutional and granting permanent injunctions. Appeals to the Court of Appeals followed and the decrees of the trial court were affirmed. It is from these final decrees that the cases come here.
Upon this state of facts the jurisdiction of the lower court to grant a rehearing, after first denying it, is challenged. We do not deem it necessary to consider the matter farther than to say that we are here dealing with the second appeals, while the proceedings complained of occurred upon the first appeals. That thе lower court could properly entertain the second appeals and decide the cases does not admit of doubt; and this the appellants virtually conceded by having themselves invoked the jurisdiction. See Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co., ante, 114.
Opinion of the Court. 261 U.S.
We come then, at once, to the substantive question involved.
The judicial duty of passing upon the constitutionality of an act of Congress is one of great gravity and delicacy. The statute here in question has successfully borne the scrutiny of the legislative branch of the government, which, by enacting it, has affirmed its validity; and that determination must be given great weight. This Court, by an unbroken line of decisions from Chief Justice Marshall to the present day, has steadily adhered to the rule that every possible presumption is in favor of the validity of an act of Congress until overcome beyond rational doubt. But if by clear and indubitable demonstration a statute be opposed to the Constitution we have no choice but to say so. The Constitution, by its own terms, is the supreme law of the land, emanating from the people, the repository of ultimate sovereignty under our form of government. A congressional statute, on the other hand, is the act of an agency of this sovereign authority and if it conflict with the Constitution must fall; for that which is not supreme must yield to that which is. To hold it invalid (if it be invalid) is a plain exercise of the judicial power—that power vested in courts to enable them to administer justice according to law. From the authority to ascertain and determine the law in a given case, there necessarily results, in case of conflict, the duty to declare and enforce the rule of the supreme law and reject that of an inferior act of legislation which, transcending the Constitution, is of no effect and binding on no оne. This is not the exercise of a substantive power to review and nullify acts of Congress, for no such substantive power exists. It is simply a necessary concomitant of the power to hear and dispose of a case or controversy properly before the court, to the determination of which must be brought the test and measure of the law.
In Adair v. United States, supra (pp. 174, 175), Mr. Justice Harlan, speaking for the Court, said:
“The right of a person to sell his labor upon such terms as he deems proper is, in its essence, the same as the right of the purchaser of labor to prescribe the conditions upon which he will accept such labor from the person offering to sell. . . . In all such particulars the employer and employé have equality of right, and any legislation that disturbs that equality is an arbitrary interference with the liberty of contract which no government can legally justify in a free land.”
In Coppage v. Kansas, supra (p. 14), this Court, speaking through Mr. Justice Pitney, said:
“Included in the right of personal liberty and the right of private property—partaking of the nature of each—is the right to make contracts for the acquisition of property. Chief among such contracts is that of personal employment, by which labor and other services are exchanged for money or other forms of property. If this
right be struck down or arbitrarily interfered with, there is a substantial impairment of liberty in the long-established constitutional sense. The right is as essential to the laborer as to the capitalist, to the poor as to the rich; for the vast majority of persons have no other honest way to begin to acquire property, save by working for money. “An interference with this liberty so serious as that now under consideration, and so disturbing of equality of right, must be deemed to be arbitrary, unless it be supportable as a reasonable exercise of the police power of the State.”
There is, of course, no such thing as absolute freedom of contract. It is subject to a great variety of restraints. But freedom of contract is, nevertheless, the general rule and restraint the exception; and the exercise of legislative authority to abridge it can be justified only by the existence of exceptional circumstances. Whether these circumstances exist in the present case constitutes the question to be answered. It will be helpful to this end to review some of the decisions where the interference has been upheld and consider the grounds upon which they rest.
(1) Those dealing with statutes fixing rates and charges to be exacted by businesses impressed with a public interest. There are many cases, but it is sufficient to cite Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 113. The power here rests upon the ground that where property is devoted to a public use the owner thereby, in effect, grants to the public an interest in the use which may be controlled by the public for the common good to the extent of the interest thus created. It is upon this theory that these statutes have been upheld and, it may be noted in passing, so upheld even in respect of their incidental and injurious or destructive effect upon preëxisting contracts. See Louisville & Nashville R. R. Co. v. Mottley, 219 U. S. 467. In the case at bar the statute does not depend upon
(2) Statutes relating to contracts for the performance of public work. Atkin v. Kansas, 191 U. S. 207; Heim v. McCall, 239 U. S. 175; Ellis v. United States, 206 U. S. 246. These cases sustain such statutes as depending, not upon the right to condition private contracts, but upon the right of the government to prescribe the conditions upon which it will permit work of a public character to be done for it, or, in the case of a State, for its municipalities. We may, therefore, in like manner, dismiss these decisions from consideration as inapplicable.
(3) Statutes prescribing the character, methods and time for payment of wages. Under this head may be included McLean v. Arkansas, 211 U. S. 539, sustaining a state statute requiring coal to be measured for payment of miners’ wages before screening; Knoxville Iron Co. v. Harbison, 183 U. S. 13, sustaining a Tennessee statute requiring the redemption in cash of store orders issued in payment of wages; Erie R. R. Co. v. Williams, 233 U. S. 685, upholding a statute regulating the time within which wages shall be paid to employees in certain specified industries; and other cases sustaining statutes of like import and effect. In none of the statutes thus sustained, was the liberty of employer or employee to fix the amount of wages the one was willing to pay and the other willing to receive interfered with. Their tendency and purpose was to prevent unfair and perhaps fraudulent methods in the payment of wages and in no sense can they be said to be, or to furnish a precedent for, wage-fixing statutes.
(4) Statutes fixing hours of lаbor. It is upon this class that the greatest emphasis is laid in argument and therefore, and because such cases approach most nearly the line of principle applicable to the statute here involved, we shall consider them more at length. In some instances
That this constituted the basis of the decision is emphasized by the subsequent decision in Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, reviewing a state statute which restricted the employment of all persons in bakeries to ten hours in any one day. The Court referred to Holden v. Hardy, supra, and, declaring it to be inapplicable, held the statute unconstitutional as an unreasonable, unnecessary and arbitrary interference with the liberty of contract and therefore void under the
Mr. Justice Peckham, speaking for the Court (p. 56), said:
“It must, of course, be conceded that there is a limit to the valid exercise of the police power by the State. There is no dispute concerning this general proposition. Otherwise the
Fourteenth Amendment would have no efficacy and the legislaturеs of the States would have unbounded power, and it would be enough to say that any piece of legislation was enacted to conserve the morals, the health or the safety of the people; such legislation would be valid, no matter how absolutely without foundation the claim might be. The claim of the police powerwould be a mere pretext—become another and delusive name for the supreme sovereignty of the State to be exercised free from constitutional restraint.”
And again (pp. 57-58):
“It is a question of which of two powers or rights shall prevail—the power of the State to legislate or the right of the individual to liberty of person and freedom of contract. The mere assertion that the subject relates though but in a remote degree to the public health does not necessarily render the enactment valid. The act must have a more direct relation, as a means to an end, and the end itself must be appropriate and legitimate, before an act can be held to be valid which interferes with the general right of an individual to be free in his person and in his power to contract in relation to his own labor.”
Coming then directly to the statute (p. 58), the Court said:
“We think the limit of the police power has been reached and passed in this case. There is, in our judgment, no reasonable foundation for holding this to be necessary or appropriate as a health law to safeguard the public health or the health of the individuals who are following the trade of a baker. If this statute be valid, and if, therefore, a proper case is made out in which to deny the right of an individual, sui juris, as employer or employé, to make contracts for the labor of the latter under the protection of the provisions of the Federal Constitution, there would seem to be no length to which legislation of this nature might not go.”
And, after pointing out the unreasonable range to which the principle of the statute might be extended, the Court said (p. 60):
“It is also urged, pursuing the same line of argument, that it is to the interest of the State that its population should be strong and robust, and therefore any legislation which may be said to tend to make people healthy must
be valid as health laws, enacted under the police power. If this be a valid argument and a justification for this kind of legislation, it follows that the protection of the Federal Constitution from undue interference with liberty of person and freedom of contract is visionary, wherever the law is sought to be justified as a valid exercise of the police power. Scarcely any law but might find shelter under such assumptions, and conduct, properly so called, as well as contract, would come under the restrictive sway of the legislature.”
And further (p. 61):
“Statutes of the nature of that under review, limiting the hours in which grown and intelligent men may labor to earn their living, are mere meddlesome interferences with the rights of the individual, and they are not saved from condemnation by the claim that they are passed in the exercise of the police power and upon the subject of the health of the individual whose rights are interfered with, unless there be some fair ground, reasonable in and of itself, to say that there is material danger to the public health or to the health of the employés, if the hours of labor are not curtailed.”
Subsequent cases in this Court have been distinguished from that decision, but the principles therein stated have never been disapproved.
In Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U. S. 426, a state statute forbidding the emрloyment of any person in any mill, factory or manufacturing establishment more than ten hours in any one day, and providing payment for overtime not exceeding three hours in any one day at the rate of time and a half of the regular wage, was sustained on the ground that, since the state legislature and State Supreme Court had found such a law necessary for the preservation of the health of employees in these industries, this Court would accept their judgment, in the absence of facts to support the contrary conclusion. The law was attacked
Wilson v. New, 243 U. S. 332, involved the validity of the so-called Adamson Law, which established an eight-hour day for employees of interstate carriers for which it fixed a scale of minimum wages with proportionate increases for overtime, to be enforced, however, only for a limited period. The act was sustained primarily upon the ground that it was a regulation of a business charged with a public interest. The Court, speaking through the Chief Justice, pointed out that regarding “the private right and private interest as contradistinguished from the public interest the power exists between the parties, the employers and employees, to agree as to a standard of wages free from legislative interference” but that this did not affect the power to deal with the matter with a view to protect the public right, and then said (p. 353):
“And this emphasizes that there is no question here of purely private right since the law is concerned only with those who are engaged in a business charged with a public interest where the subjeсt dealt with as to all the parties is one involved in that business and which we have seen comes under the control of the right to regulate to the extent that the power to do so is appropriate or relevant to the business regulated.”
Moreover, in sustaining the wage feature, of the law, emphasis was put upon the fact (p. 345) that it was in this respect temporary “leaving the employers and employees free as to the subject of wages to govern their relations by their own agreements after the specified time.” The act was not only temporary in this respect, but it was passed to meet a sudden and great emergency. This feature of the law was sustained principally because the parties, for the time being, could not or would not agree. Here they are forbidden to agree.
“The regulation is put and justified only as a temporary measure [citing Wilson v. New, supra]. A limit in time, to tide over a passing trouble, well may justify a law that could not be upheld as a permanent change.”
In a subsequent case, Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U. S. 393, 416, this Court, after saying “We are in danger of forgetting that a strong public desire to improve the public condition is not enough to warrant achieving the desire by a shorter cut than the constitutional way of paying for the change,” pointed out that the Rent Cases dealt with laws intended to meet a temporary emergency and “went to the verge of the law.”
In addition to the cases cited above, there are the decisions of this Court dealing with laws especially relating to hours of labor for women: Muller v. Oregon, 208 U. S. 412; Riley v. Massachusetts, 232 U. S. 671; Miller v. Wilson, 236 U. S. 373; Bosley v. McLaughlin, 236 U. S. 385.
In the Muller Case the validity of an Oregon statute, forbidding the employment of any female in certain industries more than ten hours during any one day was upheld. The decision proceeded upon the theory that the difference between the sexes may justify a different rule respecting hours of labor in the case of women than in the case of men. It is pointed out that these consist in differences of physical structure, especially in respect
The essential characteristics of the statute now under consideration, which differentiate it from the laws fixing hours of labor,—will be made to appear as we proceed. It is sufficient now to point out that the latter as well as the statutes mentioned under paragraph (3), deal with incidents of the employment having no necessary effect upon
If now, in the light furnished by the foregoing exceptions to the general rule forbidding legislative interference with freedom of contract, we examine and analyze the statute in question, we shall see that it differs from them in every material respect. It is not a law dealing with any business charged with a public interest or with public work, or to meet and tide over a temporary emergency. It has nothing to do with the character, methods or periods of wage payments. It does not prescribe hours of labor or conditions under which labor is to be done. It is not for the protection of persons under legal disability, or for the prevention of fraud. It is simply and exclusively a price-fixing law, confined to adult women (for we are not now considering the provisions relating to minors), who are legally as capable of contracting for themselves as men. It forbids two parties having lawful capacity—under penalties as to the employer—to freely contract with one another in respect of the price for
The standard furnished by the statute for the guidance of the board is so vague as to be impossible of practical application with any reasonable degree of accuracy. What is sufficient to supply the necessary cost of living for a woman worker and maintain her in good health and protect her morals is obviously not a precise or unvarying sum—not even approximately so. The amount will depend upon a variety of circumstances: the individual temperament, habits of thrift, care, ability to buy necessaries intelligently, and whether the woman live alone or with her family. To those who practice economy, a given sum will afford comfort, while to those of contrary habit the same sum will be wholly inadequate. The coöperative economies of the family group are not taken into account
This uncertainty of the statutory standard is demonstrated by a consideration of certain orders of the board already made. These orders fix the sum to be paid to a woman employed in a place where food is served or in a mercantile establishment, at $16.50 per week; in a printing establishment, at $15.50 per week; and in a laundry, at $15 per week, with a provision reducing this to $9 in the case of a beginner. If a woman employed to serve food requires a minimum of $16.50 per week, it is hard to understand how the same woman working in a printing establishment or in a laundry is to get on with an income lessened by from $1 to $7.50 per week. The board prob
The law takes account of the necessities of only one party to the contract. It ignores the necessities of the employer by compelling him to pay not less than a certain sum, not only whether the employee is capable of earning it, but irrespective of the ability of his business to sustain the burden, generously leaving him, of course, the privilege of abandoning his business as an alternative for going on at a loss. Within the limits of the minimum sum, he is precluded, under penalty of fine and imprisonment, from adjusting compensation to the differing merits of his employees. It compels him to pay at least the sum fixed in any event, because the employee needs it, but requires no service of equivalent value from the employee. It therefore undertakes to solve but one-half of the problem. The other half is the establishment of a corresponding standard of efficiency, and this forms no part of the policy of the legislation, although in practice the former half without the latter must lead to ultimate failure, in accordance with the inexorable law that no one can continue indefinitely to take out more than he puts in without ultimately exhausting the supply. The law is not confined to the great and powerful employers but embraces those whose bargaining power may be as weak as that of the employee. It takes no account of periods of stress and business depression, of crippling losses, which may leave the employer himself without adequate means of livelihood. To the extent that the sum fixed exceeds the fair value of the sеrvices rendered, it amounts to a compulsory exaction from the employer for the support of a partially indigent person, for whose condition there
The feature of this statute which, perhaps more than any other, puts upon it the stamp of invalidity is that it exacts from the employer an arbitrary payment for a purpose and upon a basis having no causal connection with his business, or the contract or the work the employee engages to do. The declared basis, as already pointed out, is not the value of the service rendered, but the extraneous circumstance that the employee needs to get a prescribed sum of money to insure her subsistence, health and morals. The ethical right of every worker, man or woman, to a living wage may be conceded. One of the declared and important purposes of trade organizations is to secure it. And with that principle and with every legitimate effort to realize it in fact, no one can quarrel; but the fallacy of the proposed method of attaining it is that it assumes that every employer is bound at all events to furnish it. The moral requirement implicit in every contract of employment, viz, that the amount to be paid and the service to be rendered shall bear to each other some relation of just equivalence, is completely ignored. The necessities of the employee are alone considered and these arise outside of the employment, are the same when there is no employment, and as great in one oсcupation as in another. Certainly the employer by paying a fair equivalent for the service rendered, though not sufficient to support the employee, has neither caused nor contributed to her poverty. On the contrary, to the extent of what he pays he has relieved it. In principle, there can be no difference between the case of selling labor and the case of selling goods. If one goes to the butcher, the baker or grocer to buy food, he is morally entitled to obtain the worth of his money but he is not entitled to more. If what he gets is worth what he pays he is not justified in demanding
We are asked, upon the one hand, to consider the fact that several States have adopted similar statutes, and we are invited, upon the other hand, to give weight to the fact that three times as many States, presumably as well informed and as anxious to promote the health and morals of their people, have refrained from enacting such legislation. We have also been furnished with a large number of printed opinions approving the policy of the minimum wage, and our own reading has disclosed a large number to the contrary. These are all proper enough for the consideration of the lawmaking bodies, since their tendency is to establish the desirability or undesirability of the
It is said that great benefits have resulted from the operation of such statutes, not alone in the District of Columbia but in the several States, where they have been in force. A mass of reports, opinions of special observers and students of the subject, and the like, has been brought before us in support of this statement, all of which we have found interesting but only mildly persuasive. That the earnings of women now are greater than they were formerly and that conditions affecting women have become better in other respects may be conceded, but convincing indications of the logical relation of these desirable changes to the law in question are significantly lacking. They may be, and quite probably are, due to other causes. We cannot close our eyes to the notorious fact that earnings everywhere in all occupations have greatly increased—not alone in States where the minimum wage law obtains but in the country generally—quite as much or more among men as among women and in occupations outside the reach of the law as in those governed by it. No real test of the economic value of the law can be had during periods of maximum employment, when general causes keep wages up to or above the minimum; that will come in periods of depression and struggle for employment when the efficient will be employed at the minimum rate while the less capable may not be employed at all.
Finally, it may be said that if, in the interest of the public welfare, the police power may be invoked to justify the fixing of a minimum wage, it may, when the public welfare is thought to require it, be invoked to justify a maximum wage. The power to fix high wages connotes, by like course of reasoning, the power to fix low wages. If, in the face of the guaranties of the
It has been said that legislation of the kind now under review is required in the interest of social justice, for whose ends freedom of contract may lawfully be subjected to restraint. The liberty of the individual to do as he pleases, even in innocent matters, is not absolute. It must frequently yield to the common good, and the line beyond which the power of interference may not be pressed is neither definite nor unalterable but may be made to move, within limits not well defined, with changing need and circumstance. Any attempt to fix a rigid boundary would be unwise as well as futile. But, nevertheless, there are limits to the power, and when these have been passed, it becomes the plain duty of the courts in the proper exercise of their authority to so declare. To sustain the individual freedom of action contemplated by the
Affirmed.
MR. JUSTICE BRANDEIS took no part in the consideration or decision of these cases.
MR. CHIEF JUSTICE TAFT, dissenting.
I regret much to differ from the Court in these cases.
The boundary of the police power beyond which its exercise becomes an invasion of the guaranty of liberty under the
Legislatures in limiting freedom of contract between employee and employer by a minimum wage proceed on the assumption that employees, in the class receiving least pay, are not upon a full level of equality of choice with their employer and in their necessitous circumstances are prone to accept pretty much anything that is offered. They are peculiarly subject to the overreaching of the harsh and greedy employer. The evils of the sweating system and of the long hours and low wages which are characteristic of it are well known. Now, I agree that it is a disputable question in the field of political economy how far a statutory requirement of maximum hours or minimum wages may be a useful remedy for these evils, and whether it may not make the case of the oppressed employee worse than it was before. But it is not the function of this Court to hold congressional acts invalid simply because they are passed to carry out economic views which the Court believes to be unwise or unsound.
The right of the legislature under the
However, the opinion herein does not overrule the Bunting Case in express terms, and therefore I assume that the conclusion in this case rests on the distinction between a minimum of wages and a maximum of hours in the limiting of liberty to contract. I regret to be at variance with the Court as to the substance of this distinction. In absolute freedom of contract the one term is as important as the othеr, for both enter equally into the consideration given and received, a restriction as to one is not any greater in essence than the other, and is of the same kind. One is the multiplier and the other the multiplicand.
If it be said that long hours of labor have a more direct effect upon the health of the employee than the low wage, there is very respectable authority from close observers, disclosed in the record and in the literature on the subject quoted at length in the briefs, that they are equally harmful in this regard. Congress took this view and we can not say it was not warranted in so doing.
With deference to the very able opinion of the Court and my brethren who concur in it, it appears to me to exaggerate the importance of the wage term of the contract of employment as more inviolate than its other terms. Its conclusion seems influenced by the fear that the
Moreover, there are decisions by this Court which have sustained legislative limitations in respect to the wage term in contracts of employment. In McLean v. Arkansas, 211 U. S. 539, it was held within legislative power to make it unlawful to estimate the graduated pay of miners by weight after screening the coal. In Knoxville Iron Co. v. Harbison, 183 U. S. 13, it was held that store orders issued for wages must be redeemable in cаsh. In Patterson v. Bark Eudora, 190 U. S. 169, a law forbidding the payment of wages in advance was held valid. A like case is Strathearn S. S. Co. v. Dillon, 252 U. S. 348. While these did not impose a minimum on wages, they did take away from the employee the freedom to agree as to how they should be fixed, in what medium they should be paid, and when they should be paid, all features that might affect the amount or the mode of enjoyment of them. The first two really rested on the advantage the employer had in dealing with the employee. The third was deemed a proper curtailment of a sailor‘s right of contract in his own interest because of his proneness to squander his wages in port before sailing. In Bunting v. Oregon, supra, employees in a mill, factory or manufacturing establishment were required if they worked over ten hours a day to accept for the three additional hours permitted not less than fifty per cent. more than their usual wage. This was sustained as a mild penalty imposed on the employer to enforce the limitation as to hours; but it neces
Without, however, expressing an opinion that a minimum wage limitation can be enacted for adult men, it is enough to say that the case before us involves only the application of the minimum wage to women. If I am right in thinking that the legislature can find as much support in experience for the view that a sweating wage has as great and as direct a tendency to bring about an injury to the health and morals of workers, as for the view that long hours injure their health, then I respectfully submit that Muller v. Oregon, 208 U. S. 412, controls this case. The law which was there sustained forbade the employment of any female in any mechanical establishment or factory or laundry for more than ten hours. This covered a pretty wide field in women‘s work and it would not seem that any sound distinction between that case and this can be built up on the fact that the law before us applies to all occupations of women with power in the board to make certain exceptions. Mr. Justice Brewer, who spoke for the Court in Muller v. Oregon, based its conclusion on the natural limit to women‘s physical strength and the likelihood that long hours would therefore injure her health, and we have had since a series of cases which may be said to have established a rule of decision. Riley v. Massachusetts, 232 U. S. 671; Miller v. Wilson, 236 U. S. 373; Bosley v. McLaughlin, 236 U. S. 385. The cases covered restrictions in wide and varying fields of employment and in the later cases it will be found that the objection to the particular law was based not on the ground that it had general application but because it left out some employments.
But for my inability to agree with some general observations in the forcible opinion of MR. JUSTICE HOLMES who follows me, I should be silent and merely record my concurrence in what he says. It is perhaps wiser fоr me, however, in a case of this importance, separately to give my reasons for dissenting.
I am authorized to say that MR. JUSTICE SANFORD concurs in this opinion.
MR. JUSTICE HOLMES, dissenting.
The question in this case is the broad one, Whether Congress can establish minimum rates of wages for women in the District of Columbia with due provision for special circumstances, or whether we must say that Congress has no power to meddle with the matter at all. To me, notwithstanding the deference due to the prevailing judgment of the Court, the power of Congress seems absolutely free from doubt. The end, to remove conditions leading to ill health, immorality and the deterioration of the race, no one would deny to be within the scope of constitutional legislation. The means are means that have the approval of Congress, of many States, and of those governments from which we have learned our greatest
The earlier decisions upon the same words in the
I confess that I do not understand the principle on which the power to fix a minimum for the wages of women can be denied by those who admit the power to fix a maximum for their hours of work. I fully assent to the proposition that here as elsewhere the distinctions of the law are distinctions of degree, but I perceive no difference in the kind or degree of interference with liberty, the only matter with which we have any concern, between the one case and the other. The bargain is equally affected whichever half you regulate. Muller v. Oregon, I take it, is as good law today as it was in 1908. It will
This statute does not compel anybody to pay anything. It simply forbids employment at rates below those fixed as the minimum requirement of health and right living. It is safe to assume that women will not be employed at even the lowest wages allowed unless they earn them, or unless the employer‘s business can sustain the burden. In short the law in its character and operation is like hundreds of so-called police laws that have been upheld. I see no greater objection to using a Board to apply the standard fixed by the act than there is to the other commissions with which we have become familiar, or than there is to the requirement of a license in other cases. The fact that the statute warrants classification, which like all classifications may bear hard upon some individuals, or in exceptional cases, notwithstanding the power given to the Board to issue a special license, is no greater infirmity than is incident to all law. But the ground on which the law is held to fail is fundamental аnd therefore it is unnecessary to consider matters of detail.
The criterion of constitutionality is not whether we believe the law to be for the public good. We certainly cannot be prepared to deny that a reasonable man reasonably might have that belief in view of the legislation of Great Britain, Victoria and a number of the States of this Union. The belief is fortified by a very remarkable collection of documents submitted on behalf of the appellants, material here, I conceive, only as showing that the
I am of opinion that the statute is valid and that the decree should be reversed.